Artemis Accords
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The Artemis Accords is a non-binding multilateral arrangement between the United States government and other world governments participating in the Artemis program, an American-led effort to return humans to the Moon by 2025, with the ultimate goal of expanding space exploration to Mars and beyond. As of 9 August 2023, twenty-eight countries and one territory have signed the Atemis Accords, including ten in Europe, eight in Asia, three in North America, four in South America, two in Oceania and two in Africa.[1]
Outer Space Treaty
Drafted by NASA and the US Department of State, the Artemis Accords establish a framework for cooperation in the civil exploration and peaceful use of the Moon, Mars, and other astronomical objects. They are explicitly grounded in the United Nations Outer Space Treaty of 1967, which signatories are obliged to uphold, and cite most major UN-brokered conventions constituting space law.[2]
Signatories
The Artemis Accords were signed on 13 October 2020 by representatives of the national space agencies of eight countries: Australia, Canada, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom and the United States. Additional signatories include Ukraine, South Korea, New Zealand, Brazil, Poland, Mexico, Israel, Romania, Bahrain, Singapore, Colombia, France, Saudi Arabia, Rwanda, Nigeria, Czech Republic, Spain, Ecuador, India, and Argentina.[3]
The Artemis Accords remain open for signature indefinitely, as NASA anticipates more nations joining. Additional signatories can choose to directly participate in Artemis program activities, or may agree simply to commit to the principles for responsible exploration of the Moon as set out in the Accords.
Dissenters
The Artemis Accords have been criticised for being "too centered on American and commercial interests." Russia has condemned them as a "blatant attempt to create international space law that favours the United States." Beside possibly being an opportunity for China in light of the Wolf Amendment, Chinese government affiliated media has called the Artemis Accords "akin to European colonial enclosure land-taking methods."
Russia and China have since reached an understanding to work together on the Chinese International Lunar Research Station concept, to serve as a potential competing option for third parties such as Pakistan and the UAE.[4]
References
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