Difference between revisions of "US/Bombing campaigns since 1945"

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(See also US Sponsored Regime-change efforts since 1945 and US Foreign Assassinations since 1945.)
 
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'''Countries the US has bombed since 1945''' is in fact only the most memorable part of the listings that show violent interference by the United States of America in the affairs of other countries. In practice, US led assassinations, overthrows of legitimate government and interference with elections may be just as damaging, these are also listed here.
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''See also [[US Sponsored Regime-change efforts since 1945]] and [[US Foreign Assassinations since 1945]].''
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{{concept
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|wikipedia=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_military_operations
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|description=
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|start=1945
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|image=US Bombings since 1945.jpg
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|image_width=440px
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|constitutes=Foreign policy of the United States, US intervention
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|description=List of countries the US has bombed from the air since 1945.
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}}
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This is a list of '''countries the US has bombed since 1945'''. This is in fact only the most visible aspect of [[US Intervention]] abroad. In practice, [[US Foreign Assassinations since 1945‎|US led assassinations]] and [[US Efforts to Suppress Democracy since 1945|overthrows of legitimate governments and interference with elections]] may be just as significant as the actual bombings listed here.
  
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''This article is intended as an adjunct to two Wikipedia articles, being the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_military_operations Timeline of United States military operations] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covert_United_States_foreign_regime_change_actions US Regime-change actions] (formerly entitled "Covert US foreign regime change actions"). There is a great deal of bias in many parts of the Wikipedia articles, and the detail overwhelms the picture. There are no useful "summaries" or totals of the interventions and articles confusingly put the earlier interventions (going right back to 1776) at the top of the page. This article aims to be even-handed, clearer and more relevant.
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==Official narrative==
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This article was intended as an adjunct to two Wikipedia articles, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_military_operations Timeline of United States military operations] (which is extremely long as uses rather [[bias]]ed language) and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covert_United_States_foreign_regime_change_actions Covert US foreign regime change actions] (deleted in April 2016, but the original content is still available [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Covert_United_States_foreign_regime_change_actions&oldid=716626033 here]). Both articles (one of which is rated as of 'low importance') are unclear, lack useful summaries and have big gaps. There was no mention, for example, of the successful World Court action by Nicaragua against the US). The talk page confirm the difficulty faced by editors attempting to restore objectivity to the page in the face of a bevy of editors beholden to the US-sponsored {{on}}.
  
 
==Countries the US has bombed since the end of World War 2==
 
==Countries the US has bombed since the end of World War 2==
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The US is said to have carried out 32 distinct and separate bombing campaigns on 24 different countries between 1945 and 1999.<ref name=bluminterventions>[http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Blum/US_Interventions_WBlumZ.html A Brief History of U.S. Interventions] 1945 to the Present by William Blum - Z magazine, June 1999.</ref> However, the listing below includes later operations as well. In most cases, bombings with aircraft cannot be denied, though in some cases this has been attempted.<br>  
 
The US is said to have carried out 32 distinct and separate bombing campaigns on 24 different countries between 1945 and 1999.<ref name=bluminterventions>[http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Blum/US_Interventions_WBlumZ.html A Brief History of U.S. Interventions] 1945 to the Present by William Blum - Z magazine, June 1999.</ref> However, the listing below includes later operations as well. In most cases, bombings with aircraft cannot be denied, though in some cases this has been attempted.<br>  
  
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! align="left" width="6%"|<big>'''Date'''</big> !! <big>'''Country'''</big> !! Details !! Disputed?  
 
! align="left" width="6%"|<big>'''Date'''</big> !! <big>'''Country'''</big> !! Details !! Disputed?  
 
|-
 
|-
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| 2011 || [[:Category:Libya|Libya]] || Early US attacks under UNSC 1973 are followed by NATO attacks leading to regime change and death of Ghadaffi. || No
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| 2014 -<br>present || [[Iraq]] and [[Syria]] || Said to be against [[ISIS]] with [[Document:Staged ISIS Videos are the Plot of Iron Man 3|alleged beheadings]] as the primary casus belli || No
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 2003 -<br>2011 ||[[:Category:Iraq|Iraq]] || Regime change against Saddam Hussein, an ally who had gone rogue. By all accounts, US Ambassador in Baghdad, April Glaspie, gave Saddam the green light to invade Kuwait in August 1990. She was totally silent on everything until her retirement in 2002 and has not spoken since.<ref>[http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article11376.htm Is the US State Department still keeping April Glaspie under wraps?] Information Clearing House 12/25/2005.</ref> || No
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| 2011 -<br>present || [[Somalia]] || Ongoing drone strikes || No
 
|-
 
|-
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| 2001 -<br>present || [[:Category:Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] || Regime change under the guise of trying to catch Osama Bin Laden. || No
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| 2011 || [[Libya]] || Early US attacks under UNSC 1973 were followed by NATO's “Operation Unified Protector”, leading to regime change and death of Gaddafi. || No
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1999 || [[:Category:Serbia|Yugoslavia - Serbia]] || Allegedly to stop an ethnic cleansing that had begun or might begin. Targetted television stations and bombed the Chinese Embassy. || No
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| 2004 -<br>present || [[Yemen]] || Ongoing drone strikes, allegedly targeting terror suspects || No
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1998 || [[:Category:Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] || Cruise missiles on Osama Bin Ladens compounds. || No
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| 2004 -<br>present || [[Pakistan]] || Ongoing drone strikes, allegedly targeting militants || No
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1998 || [[:Category:Sudan|Sudan]] || Cruise missile attack on an antibiotic factory wrongly alleged to be producing WMD. || No
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| 2003 -<br>2011 ||[[Iraq]] || Regime change against Saddam Hussein, an ally who had gone rogue. By all accounts, US Ambassador in Baghdad, April Glaspie, gave Saddam the green light to invade Kuwait in August 1990. She was totally silent on everything until her retirement in 2002 and has not spoken since.<ref>[http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article11376.htm Is the US State Department still keeping April Glaspie under wraps?] Information Clearing House 12/25/2005.</ref> || No
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1998 || [[:Category:Iran|Iran]] || || ????
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| 2001 -<br>present || [[Afghanistan]] || Regime change and boosting the [[opium]] trade under the pretext of pursuing [[Osama Bin Laden]]. || No
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1995 || [[:Category:Bosnia|Bosnia]] || Serbian forces bombed. Generally accepted as a "good war".  || No
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| 1999 || [[Yugoslavia]], [[Serbia]] || Allegedly to stop an ethnic cleansing that had begun or might begin. Targeted television stations and bombed the Chinese Embassy. || No
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1992-<br>1994 || [[:Category:Somalia|Somalia]] || Known to the West chiefly for "Black Hawk Down" || ????
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| 1998 || [[Afghanistan]] || Cruise missiles on Osama Bin Laden's compounds. || No
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1991 || [[:Category:Kuwait|Kuwait]] || See bombing of Iraq, below. Some of the attack took place within Kuwait, leaving quantities of Depleted Uranium, and causing much subsequent concern about cancers. || No
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| 1998 || [[Sudan]] || Cruise missile attack on an antibiotic factory wrongly alleged to be producing WMD. || No
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1991 || [[:Category:Iraq|Iraq]] || Bombing for 40 days and nights devastated the ancient and modern capital city of one of the most advanced nations in the Middle East. 177 million pounds of bombs fell in the most concentrated aerial onslaught in the history of the world.<ref name=bluminterventions/> Genuine multi-national effort and seen by most as a "good war". || No
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| 1998 || [[Iran]] || || ??
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1989 -<br>1990 || [[:Category:Panama|Panama]] || December 1989, a large tenement barrio in Panama City wiped out, 15,000 people left homeless. Casualties disputed.<ref name=bluminterventions/> || No
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| 1995 || [[Bosnia]] || Serbian forces bombed. [[Depleted Uranium]] shells used. || No
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1989 || [[:Category:Libya|Libya]] || Attempt to kill Ghaddafi, Tripoli bombed. ||  
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| 1992-<br>1994 || [[Somalia]] || Known to the West chiefly for "Black Hawk Down" || ??
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1987 -<br>1988 ||[[:Category:Iran|Iran]] || || ????
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| 1991 || [[Kuwait]] || See bombing of Iraq, below. Some of the attack took place within Kuwait, leaving quantities of Depleted Uranium, and causing much subsequent concern about cancers. || No
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1979 -<br>1990 || [[:Category:Nicaragua|Nicaragua]] || Ronald Reagan's "freedom fighters." Sandinistas overthrow Somoza dictatorship in 1978, CIA arms the Contras (ie Somoza's vicious National Guard and other supporters of the dictator). US taken to the World Court and condemned for terrorism in 1986.<ref>[http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/41/a41r031.htm Judgment of the International Court of Justice of 27 June 1986 concerning military and paramilitary activities in and against Nicaragua: need for immediate compliance] United Nations General Assembly 3 Nov 1986.</ref><ref>[http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=nicaragua US-Nicaragua (1979-) history of US Interventions] cooperative research.</ref> All-out war, aimed at destroying all social and economic programs of the government, burning down schools and medical clinics, raping, torturing, mining harbors, bombing and strafing. <ref name=bluminterventions/> || Denied by some
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| 1991 || [[Iraq]] || Bombing for 40 days and nights devastated the ancient and modern capital city of one of the most advanced nations in the Middle East. 177 million pounds of bombs fell in the most concentrated aerial onslaught in the history of the world.<ref name=bluminterventions/> Genuine multi-national effort and seen by most as a "good war". || No
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1981 -<br>1992 || [[:Category:El Salvador|El Salvadore]] || Officially, the U.S. military presence in El Salvador was limited to an advisory capacity. About 20 Americans were killed or wounded in helicopter and plane crashes while flying reconnaissance or other missions over combat areas, and considerable evidence surfaced of a U.S. role in the ground fighting as well. The war came to an official end in 1992; 75,000 civilian deaths at a cost of six billion dollars. Meaningful social change still largely thwarted by 1999. A handful of the wealthy still owned the country, the poor remained as ever, and dissidents still suffered from death squads.<ref name=bluminterventions/> || Disputed by some
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| 1989 -<br>1990 || [[Panama]] || December 1989, a large tenement barrio in Panama City wiped out, 15,000 people left homeless. Casualties disputed.<ref name=bluminterventions/> || No
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1986 || [[:Category:Libya|Libya]] || One of more than 50 attempts to assassinate foreign leaders (no listing in Pilger's "The World War on Democracy").<ref name=pilger>[http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=va&aid=28753 The World War on Democracy] One of more than 50 attempts to assassinate foreign leaders (but no listing) Global Research, John Pilger Jan 19, 2012, citing William Blum's "updated summary of the record of US foreign policy". Since the Second World War" of July 2011.</ref> || No
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| 1987 -<br>1988 ||[[Iran]] || Operation Prime Chance, nominally to protect U.S.-flagged oil tankers in the Gulf || No
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1983 -<br>1984 || [[:Category:Grenada|Grenada]] || Was air-power used? ||  
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| 1986 || [[Libya]] || Attempt to kill Gaddafi, Tripoli bombed. Operation El Dorado Canyon, one of more than 50 attempts to assassinate foreign leaders (no listing in Pilger's "The World War on Democracy").<ref name=pilger>[http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=va&aid=28753 The World War on Democracy] One of more than 50 attempts to assassinate foreign leaders (but no listing) Global Research, John Pilger Jan 19, 2012, citing William Blum's "updated summary of the record of US foreign policy". Since the Second World War" of July 2011.</ref> || No
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1982 -<br>1984 || [[:Category:Lebanon|Lebanon]] || Shelled villages from war-ship. ||  
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| 1979 -<br>1990 || [[Nicaragua]] || [[Ronald Reagan]]'s "freedom fighters." Sandinistas overthrow Somoza dictatorship in 1978, [[CIA]] uses profits from [[CIA/Drug trafficking|drug running]] to arm the Contras "[[Iran-Contra]]" (i.e. Somoza's vicious National Guard and other supporters of the dictator). US was condemned for "[[terrorism]]" by the World Court in 1986.<ref>[http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/41/a41r031.htm Judgment of the International Court of Justice of 27 June 1986 concerning military and paramilitary activities in and against Nicaragua: need for immediate compliance] United Nations General Assembly 3 Nov 1986.</ref><ref>[http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=nicaragua US-Nicaragua (1979-) history of US Interventions] cooperative research.</ref> All-out war, aimed at destroying all social and economic programs of the government, burning down schools and medical clinics, raping, torturing, mining harbors, bombing and strafing. <ref name=bluminterventions/> || Denied by some?
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1969 -<br>1970 || [[:Category:Cambodia|Cambodia]] || More bombs than the whole of WW2. ||  
+
| 1981 -<br>1992 || [[El Salvador]] || Officially, the U.S. military presence in El Salvador was limited to an advisory capacity. About 20 Americans were killed or wounded in helicopter and plane crashes while flying reconnaissance or other missions over combat areas, and considerable evidence surfaced of a U.S. role in the ground fighting as well. The war came to an official end in 1992; 75,000 civilian deaths at a cost of six billion dollars. Meaningful social change still largely thwarted by 1999. A handful of the wealthy still owned the country, the poor remained as ever, and dissidents still suffered from death squads.<ref name=bluminterventions/> || By some
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1961 -<br>1973 || [[:Category:Vietnam|Vietnam]] || South Vietnam devastated. ||  
+
| 1983 -<br>1984 || [[Grenada]] || Operation Urgent Fury, termed by the UN General Assembly termed it "a flagrant violation of international law"<ref name="grenada">http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/resguide/r38.htm </ref>. || No
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1964 -<br>1973 || [[:Category:Laos|Laos]] || ||  
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| 1982 -<br>1984 || [[Lebanon]] || Shelled villages from warship. || ??
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1965 || [[:Category:Peru]] || Bombing of Peru and assistance to counter-insurgency operations <ref name=Blum> William Blum, ''Killing Hope: U.S. Military and C.I.A. Interventions since World War II'', 2003 </ref><ref> [http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Rogue_State_US/US_Bombing_Since_WWII.html US Bombing Interventions Since WW II], ''Third World Traveler'' </ref> || Disputed by some
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| 1969 -<br>1970 || [[Cambodia]] || More bombs than the whole of WW2. || No
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1965 -<br>1966 || [[:Category:Dominican Republic|Dominican Republic]] || || ????
+
| 1961 -<br>1973 || [[Vietnam]] || South Vietnam devastated. || No
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1964 || [[:Category:Guatemala|Guatemala]] || || ????
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| 1964 -<br>1975 || [[Laos]] || "[[Anti-communism]]" || No
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1964 || [[:Category:Congo|Belgian Congo]] || || Disputed by some
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| 1965 || [[Peru]] || Bombing of Peru and assistance to counter-insurgency operations <ref name=Blum> William Blum, ''Killing Hope: U.S. Military and C.I.A. Interventions since World War II'', 2003 </ref><ref> [http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Rogue_State_US/US_Bombing_Since_WWII.html US Bombing Interventions Since WW II], ''Third World Traveler'' </ref> || By some
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1961 || [[:Category:Cuba]] || "Bay of Pigs", a failed invasion, US-sponsored. || No
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| 1965 -<br>1966 || [[Dominican Republic]] || || ??
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1960 || [[:Category:Guatemala|Guatemala]] ||  || Disputed by some
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| 1964 || [[Guatemala]] ||  || ??
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1959 -<br>1960 || [[:Category:Cuba|Cuba]] || 40 years of terrorist attacks, bombings, full-scale military invasion, sanctions, embargoes, isolation, assassinations.<ref name=bluminterventions/> ||  
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| 1964 || [[Belgian Congo]] || || By some
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1958 || [[:Category:Indonesia|Indonesia]] || Large scale killings || ????
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| 1961 || [[Cuba]] || The infamous [[Bay of Pigs invasion]], designed to fail, intended to draw [[JFK]] into a full scale invasion. || No
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1954 || [[:Category:Guatemala|Guatemala]] || A CIA-organized coup (Operation PBSUCCESS) overthrows the democratically-elected and progressive government of Jacobo Arbenz, initiating 35 or 40 years of death-squads, torture, disappearances, mass executions, and unimaginable cruelty (peaking 1967-69) totaling well over 100,000 victims - one of the most inhuman chapters of the 20th century. Arbenz had nationalized the U.S. firm, United Fruit Company. The Russians had so little interest in the country that it didn't even maintain diplomatic relations.<ref name=bluminterventions/> Bombers based in Nicaragua. 200,000 people are eventually dead in a 36 year long Guatemalan Civil War.<ref> Washington Monthly [[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1316/is_10_34/ai_93088744 SILENCE ON THE MOUNTAIN] Stories of Terror, Betrayal, and Forgetting in Guatemala by Daniel Wilkinson Houghton Mifflin.</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=sp3IGB4csCQC "Secret History: The CIA's Classified Account of Its Operations in Guatemala, 1952-1954"] Stanford University Press, 2006.</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=mS7ZVKa6i3AC "Shattered Hope: The Guatemalan Revolution and the United States, 1944-1954"] Princeton University Press, 1992.</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=h17R_A0n-1MC "Managing the Counterrevolution: The United States and Guatemala, 1954-1961"] Ohio University Press, 2000.</ref><ref>[http://lap.sagepub.com/cgi/pdf_extract/10/1/88 "U.S. Foreign Policy toward Radical Change: Covert Operations in Guatemala, 1950-1954"]. Latin American Perspectives, 1983, Vol. 10, No. 1, p. 88-102.</ref> || Disputed by some
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| 1960 || [[Guatemala]] || || By some
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1950 -<br>1953 || [[:Category:China|China]] || || Denied by some
+
| 1959 -<br>1960 || [[Cuba]] || 40 years of attacks, bombings, full-scale military invasion, sanctions, embargoes, isolation, assassinations.<ref name=bluminterventions/> || No
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1950 -<br>1953 || [[:Category:Korea|Korea]] || At least 20% and perhaps up to 1/3rd of the population killed in order to prevent re-unification. || No
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| 1958 || [[Indonesia]] || Large scale killings{{cn}} || ??
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1945 -<br>1946 || [[:Category:China|China]] || || Denied by some
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| 1954 || [[Guatemala]] || A CIA-organised coup ([[Operation PBSUCCESS]]) overthrew the democratically-elected and progressive government of [[Jacobo Arbenz]], initiating over 35 years of [[death squads]], [[torture]], [[disappearances]], mass [[murder]], totaling well over 100,000 victims - one of the most inhuman chapters of the 20<sup>th</sup> century. Arbenz had nationalized the U.S. firm, [[United Fruit Company]]. The Russians had so little interest in the country that it didn't even maintain diplomatic relations.<ref name=bluminterventions/> Bombers based in Nicaragua. 200,000 people are eventually dead in a 36 year long Guatemalan Civil War.<ref> Washington Monthly [[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1316/is_10_34/ai_93088744 SILENCE ON THE MOUNTAIN] Stories of Terror, Betrayal, and Forgetting in Guatemala by Daniel Wilkinson Houghton Mifflin.</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=sp3IGB4csCQC "Secret History: The CIA's Classified Account of Its Operations in Guatemala, 1952-1954"] Stanford University Press, 2006.</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=mS7ZVKa6i3AC "Shattered Hope: The Guatemalan Revolution and the United States, 1944-1954"] Princeton University Press, 1992.</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=h17R_A0n-1MC "Managing the Counterrevolution: The United States and Guatemala, 1954-1961"] Ohio University Press, 2000.</ref><ref>[http://lap.sagepub.com/cgi/pdf_extract/10/1/88 "U.S. Foreign Policy toward Radical Change: Covert Operations in Guatemala, 1950-1954"]. Latin American Perspectives, 1983, Vol. 10, No. 1, p. 88-102.</ref> || Disputed by some
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|}
 
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==Countries where the US has assasinated or attempted to assassinate a movement leader==
 
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The US has made more than 50 attempts to assassinate political party leaders according to William Blum in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killing_Hope "Killing Hope: U.S. Military and C.I.A. Interventions since World War II"], 2003. Noam Chomsky called this book [http://www.opednews.com/articles/genera_kevin_ba_080507_william_blum_to_noam.htm "Far and away the best book on the topic.]". Former CIA officer John Stockwell called the same book [http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/RepresentativePress/binLadenphoto.html&date=2009-10-25+09:44:13 "The single most useful summary of CIA history."]
 
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All such operations are illegal and almost all such killings are aimed at geo-political objectives. In almost no cases can any clear humanitarian benefit be identified, even if the target is/was indeed tyrranical.
 
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While bombings with aircraft leave evidence in many cases, covert operations may be difficult to prove.
 
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{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%;"
 
 
|-
 
|-
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! align="left" width="6%"|<big>'''Date'''</big> !! <big>'''Country'''</big> !! Details !! Disputed?
+
| 1950 -<br>1953 || [[China]] ||  || By some
 
|-
 
|-
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| 2011 || [[:Category:Pakistan]] || Osama Bin Laden. Killing of a captured man. || Maybe
+
| 1950 -<br>1953 || [[Korea]] || At least 20% and perhaps up to 1/3rd of the population killed in order to prevent re-unification. || No
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 2003 || [[:Category:Iraq]] || Saddam Hussein and his two sons. Two killings and a semi-judicial execution. || Maybe
+
| 1945 -<br>1946 || [[China]] ||  || By some
−
|-
+
|}
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| 2002 || [[:Category:Afghanistan]] || Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, Islamic leader and warlord || Maybe
+
{{SMWDocs}}
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|-
+
==References==
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| 2001 || [[:Category:Afghanistan]] || Invasion of Afghanistan, followed by an unsuccessful attempt to catch Osama bin Laden in the mountains of Tora Bora. || No
 
−
|-
 
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| 1998 || [[:Category:Afghanistan]] || Osama bin Laden, leading Islamic militant. Cruise missiles followed by a full-scale invasion. || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1993 || [[:Category:Somalia]] || Mohamed Farah Aideed, prominent clan leader. Failed attempt but he died later. || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1991 || [[:Category:Iraq]] || Saddam Hussein, leader. Attempt to kill him? || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1985 || [[:Category:Lebanon]] || Sheikh Mohammed Hussein Fadlallah, Shiite leader (80 people killed in the attempt) || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1984 || [[:Category:Nicaragua]] || The nine comandantes of the Sandinista National Directorate || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1983 || [[:Category:Nicaragua]] || Miguel d'Escoto, Foreign Minister || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1983 || [[:Category:Morocco]] || Gen. Ahmed Dlimi, Army commander || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1982 || [[:Category:Iran]] || Ayatollah Khomeini, leader || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1980-<br>1986 || [[:Category:Libya]] || Muammar Qaddafi, leader, several plots and attempts upon his life || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1976 || [[:Category:Jamaica]] || Michael Manley, Prime Minister || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1976 || [[:Category:Chile]] || exiled Chilean Foreign Minister Orlando Letelier is blown up in Washington DC, part of Operation Condor with at least tacit US support || ?
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1975 || [[:Category:Zaire]] || Mobutu Sese Seko, President. || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1972 || [[:Category:Panama]] || General Manuel Noriega, Chief of Intelligence. Captured alive and been imprisoned ever since. || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1970s,<br>1981 || [[:Category:Panama]] || General Omar Torrijos, leader || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1970 || [[:Category:Chile]] || Gen. Rene Schneider, Commander-in-Chief of Army. || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1970 || [[:Category:Chile]] || Salvador Allende, President unsuccesful US supported coup "Project FUBELT" || No
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1967 || [[:Category:Bolivia]] || Che Guevara, revolutionary leader. CIA-organized military operation ends in capture and execution by the Bolivian Army. || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1965 -<br>1956 || [[:Category:France]] || Charles de Gaulle, President || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1965 || [[:Category:Dominican Republic]] || Francisco Caamaño, opposition leader || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1965 || [[:Category:Congo (Zaire)]] || President overthrown and replaced by Mobutu, see entry for 1961, deposing of Lumumbu. || No
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1960s || [[:Category:Cuba]] || Raúl Castro, high official in government || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1960s -<br>1970s || [[:Category:Cuba]] || Fidel Castro, President, many attempts on his life including poisoned cigars. || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1963 || [[:Category:South Vietnam]] || Ngo Dinh Diem, President. Successful attempt to replace one puppet leader with another. || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1963 || [[:Category:Iraq]] || The CIA supports the Ba'athists, including Saddam Hussein, in a coup in Iraq against the Qassim government.<ref>[http://readthese.blogspot.com/2003_12_15_readthese_archive.html A Tyrant 40 Years in the Making] New York Times March 14 2003.</ref><ref>''The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq'' Princeton University Press. 1978.</ref><ref>''Iraq Since 1958'' Peter and Marion Sluglett. 1990.</ref> || No <ref name="church">Regarding the CIA's "Health Alteration Committee's work in Iraq, see U.S. Senate's Church Committee Interim Report on Assassination, page 181, Note 1.</ref>
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1961 || [[:Category:Dominican Republic]] || Gen. Rafael Trujillo, dictator since 1930 shot dead in 1961.<ref>[http://history-matters.com/archive/church/reports/ir/contents.htm Report: Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders] History Matters website.</ref><ref>[http://history-matters.com/archive/church/reports/ir/pdf/ChurchIR_3D_Trujillo.pdf Church Committee Report - Trujillo] </ref> || Yes
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1961 || [[:Category:Congo (Zaire)]] || In June 1960, Patrice Lumumba became the Congo's first prime minister after independence from Belgium. Calls for the nation's economic liberation and is branded a communist. Eleven days later, the mineral rich Katanga province, owned by Belgium and prominent Eisenhower administration officials, seceedes. Lumumba dismissed in September at the instigation of the United States, and in Jan 1961 assassinated at the express request of Dwight Eisenhower. Several years of civil conflict and chaos end in the CIA backed deposing of President Joseph Kasavubu and the 1965 accession to power of the CIA linked Mobutu Sese Seko. Mobutu ruled and robbed the country for more than 30 years (a "kleptocracy") while the Zairian people lived in abject poverty. || No
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1961 || [[:Category:Haiti]] || Francois "Papa Doc" Duvalier, leader || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1950s-<br>1970s || [[:Category:Costa Rica]] || José Figueres, President, two attempts on his life || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1960 || [[:Category:Iraq]] || Brig. Gen. Abdul Karim Kassem, leader || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1959 || [[:Category:Cambodia]] || Norodom Sihanouk, leader. And again, 1963, 1969. || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1957 || [[:Category:Egypt]] || Gamal Abdul Nasser, President || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1955 || [[:Category:India]] || Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime Minister || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1951 || [[:Category:Iran]] || Mohammed Mossadegh, Prime Minister || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1951 || [[:Category:North Korea]] || Kim Il Sung, Premier || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1950s (mid) || [[:Category:Philippines]]  || Claro M. Recto, opposition leader || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1950s, 1962 || [[:Category:Indonesia]] || Sukarno, President || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1950s || [[:Category:China]] || Prime minister Chou En-lai, several attempts on his life || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1950s || [[:Category:Germany]] || CIA/Neo-Nazi hit list of more than 200 political figures in West Germany to be "put out of the way" in the event of a Soviet invasion || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1949 || [[:Category:Korea]] || Kim Koo, opposition leader || No
 
−
|}  
 
−
 
 
−
Increasingly, attacks are being made on individuals or leaders of quite small groups designated "terrorists". In 2011/2012 there are killings of nuclear technicians in Iran.
 
−
 
 
−
==Countries where the US has attempted to overthrow a democratic government==
 
−
 
 
−
The US has attempted to overthrow more than 50 national governments, most of them being popular/democratic rather than tyrannical.<ref name=pilger/>
 
−
 
 
−
While bombings with aircraft leave evidence in most cases, covert operations may be difficult to prove.
 
−
 
 
−
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%;"
 
−
|-
 
−
! align="left" width="6%"|<big>'''Date'''</big> !! <big>'''Country'''</big> !! Details !! Disputed?
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1973 || [[:Category:Chile]] || The CIA sabotaged Allende's first election in 1964, and failed to do so in 1970 (when they also tried to kill him). The military was encouraged to be hostile and in Sept 1973 the government was overthrown, Allende dying in the process. The generals closed the country to the outside world for a week, tanks rolled, soldiers broke down doors, stadiums rang with the sounds of execution and bodies piled up along the streets and floated in the river. More than 3,000 were executed, thousands more tortured or disappeared.<ref name=bluminterventions/><ref>[http://www.fas.org/irp/news/2003/02/dos022003.html Secretary of State Colin L. Powell Interview] On Black Entertainment Television's Youth Town Hall U.S. Department of State.</ref><ref>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/nsaebb8i.htm Chile and the United States: Declassified Documents Relating to the Military Coup, September 11, 1973. National Security Archive.</ref>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/news/20000919/ CIA Acknowledges Ties to Pinochet’s Repression Report to Congress Reveals U.S. Accountability in Chile] National Security Archive.</ref>[http://www.commondreams.org/headlines04/0527-01.htm New Transcripts Point to US Role in Chile Coup].</ref>[http://www.gwu.edu/%7Ensarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB123/index.htm The Kissinger Telcons National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 123] National Security Archive.</ref><ref>[http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/americas/11/13/cia.chile.02/ Documents reveal U.S. funding for Chile coup] CNN.com.</ref> || No
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1970 || [[:Category:Italy]] || CIA support for failed [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golpe_Borghese Golpe Borghese] coup in Italy. The military attaché at the US embassy was allegedly connected to the coup organizers and one of the accused claimed that US President Richard Nixon had followed the preparations for the coup.<ref>''Enquêtes sur la droite extrême'', Le Monde-éditions, 1992, p.84. Cited by Wikipedia.</ref> A Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request by Italian newspaper La Repubblica in December 2004 confirmed this.<ref>[http://www.lastoriasiamonoi.rai.it/puntata.aspx?id=424 Il golpe Borghese. Storia di un'inchiesta], La storia siamo noi, Rai Educational, cited by Wikipedia.</ref> || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1964 || [[:Category:Brazil]] || Democratic government overthrown and replaced with a military dictator, and with American support military dictators dominated Brazil until the late 1970s. || Maybe
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1961 || [[:Category:Greece]] || CIA-backed military coup ushers in Regime of the Colonels in Greece. || ??
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1953 || [[:Category:Guyana]] || From 1953-64, the UK and the US went to great lengths to prevent a democratically elected leader of British Guiana/Guyana from governing. Cheddi Jagan had tried to remain neutral and independent and was elected three times. Using a variety of tactics including general strikes and disinformation to terrorism and British legalisms, the U. S. and Britain finally forced Jagan out in 1964. John F. Kennedy had given a direct order for his ouster, as, presumably, had Eisenhower. One of the better-off countries in the region under Jagan, Guyana, by the 1980s, was one of the poorest. Its principal export became people.<ref name=bluminterventions/> || ??
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1953 || [[:Category:Iran]] || In 1951 the Iranian parliament voted to nationalize the Iran's petroleum industry, threatening the profits of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. Declassified CIA documents show that Britain was fearful of Iran's plans to nationalize its oil industry and pressed the U.S. to mount Operation Ajax to depose the prime minister and install a puppet regime. Elected Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh and his government were replaced by the Shah (overthrown 26 years later).<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/041600iran-cia-index.html Special Report: Secret History of the CIA in Iran] New York Times. 2000.</ref><ref>[http://www.fff.org/comment/com0501i.asp An Anti-Democracy Foreign Policy: Iran] Future Freedoms Foundation.</ref><ref>[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/irtoc.html "Country Studies: Iran"]. Library of Congress, March 7, 2007.</ref><ref>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB126/index.htm "Muhammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran"]. Edited by Mark J. Gasiorowski and Malcolm Byrne. Syracuse University Press, 2004.</ref><ref>[http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0004/19/i_ins.00.html "U.S. Comes Clean About The Coup In Iran"]. CNN Insight, April 19, 2000 (transcript of video).</ref><ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D02E4DE123AF93BA25750C0A9669C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2 "U.S. Ending A Few Of The Sanctions Imposed On Iran"], New York Times, March 18, 2000. Secretary of State Madeleine K. Albright: "’In 1953 the United States played a significant role in orchestrating the overthrow of Iran's popular prime minister, Mohammad Mossadegh’"</ref> || No
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1949 || [[:Category:Syria]] || CIA helps overthrow the democratically elected government of Syria, bringing in the dictatorship of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Husni_al-Za%27im Husni al-Za'im]. Wikipedia says "carried out with discreet backing of the American embassy". || ??
 
−
|}  
 
−
 
 
−
==Countries where the US has attempted to suppress a populist or national movement==
 
−
 
 
−
The US has has attempted to suppress a populist or national movement in 20 countries.<ref name=pilger/> Covert operations may be difficult or impossible to prove.
 
−
 
 
−
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%;"
 
−
|-
 
−
! align="left" width="6%"|<big>'''Date'''</big> !! <big>'''Country'''</big> !! Details !! Disputed?
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1975 || South America || Operation Condor was a campaign of political repression and terror involving assassination and intelligence operations officially implemented in 1975 by right-wing dictatorships in South America. The program aimed to eradicate alleged socialist and communist influence and ideas and to control active or potential opposition movements against the participating governments.<ref>''Shock Doctrine'' Naomi Klein, Picador, 2007.</ref> Due to its clandestine nature, the precise number of deaths directly attributable to Operation Condor is highly disputed. It is estimated that a minimum of 60,000 deaths can be attributed to Condor,<ref>[http://www.el-universal.com.mx/editoriales/34023.html Editoriales - Operacion Condor] Victor Flores Olea. El Universal, Mexico 10 April 2006.</ref> possibly more.<ref>[http://www.pj.gov.py/cdya/index.html Centro de Documentación y Archivo para la Defensa de los Derechos Humanos] 25 June 2007.</ref><ref>Tracking the Origins of a State Terror Network: Operation Condor. J. Patrice McSherry 2002 Latin American Perspectives, vol 29, iss 1, p.36-60.</ref><ref>[http://www.lanacion.cl/prontus_noticias/site/artic/20061212/pags/20061212213006.html 2006: el ocaso de los "cóndores mayores"] La Nación (Chile) 13 December 2007.</ref> Condor's key members were the governments in Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia and Brazil. The United States provided support, with Ecuador and Peru joining later in more peripheral roles.<ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3821/is_200610/ai_n17195860 Predatory States. Operation Condor and Covert War in Latin America/When States Kill]. Latin America, the U.S., and Technologies of Terror Journal of Third World Studies 2006.</ref> || No
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1961 -<br>1963 || Ecuador || President José María Velasco Ibarra was overthrown by a military coup, replaced with his vice-president Carlos Julio Arosemana, who in turn was overthrown in 1963 and replaced by a more consistently anti-Communist military junta.<ref>[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3719/is_200507/ai_n14904094 Post-transition Ecuador 2000 An essay in honor of Martin needler1] Journal of Political and Military Sociology, 2005.</ref><ref>[http://www.doublestandards.org/blum7.html Ecuador 1960 to 1963: A Textbook of Dirty Tricks] William Blum.</ref> || ??
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1961 -<br>1962 || [[:Category:Cuba]] || Attempts to overthrow Fidel Castro, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cuban_Project The Cuban Project], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Mongoose Operation Mongoose], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Northwoods Operation Northwoods] || No
 
−
|-
 
−
| 1946 -<br>1949 || [[:Category:Greece]] || Intervened in a civil war, taking the side of the neo-fascists against the Greek left which had fought the Nazis courageously. The neo-fascists won and instituted a highly brutal regime, for which the CIA created a new internal security agency, KYP. Before long, KYP was carrying out all the endearing practices of secret police everywhere, including systematic torture.<ref name=bluminterventions/> || ??
 
−
|}  
 
−
 
 
−
==Countries where the US has seriously interfered in democratic elections==
 
−
 
 
−
The US has seriously interfered in democratic elections in at least 30 countries.<ref name=pilger/> Covert operations may be difficult or impossible to prove.
 
−
 
 
−
==Reliability of this information==
 
−
 
 
−
The shortage of material in the [[MSM]] means that some of this Wikispooks article has used sources which, while they are better than blogs, are not really subject to the kind of "editorial control" exerted by responsible publishers. In many cases, this comes down to the reliability of individual authors. While some of the authors used here may be opinionated, prone to using flowery language and (inevitably) accused of errors, none of them are known to deliberately distort the facts.
 
−
 
 
−
==Wikpedia bias==
 
−
 
 
−
Substantial bias can be seen in many parts of the Wikipedia articles (eg no mention of the successful World Court action by Nicaragua against the US). Partly this is simply concealment of the overall picture in the mass of detail.
 
−
 
 
−
However, there are other clues which betray the impossible editing conditions which are tolerated and indeed imposed at the Wikipedia, whereby good editors are driven off by bad editors.
 
−
 
 
−
==Notes==
 
−
 
 
 
{{reflist|2}}
 
{{reflist|2}}
−
 
−
[[Category:US Intervention]]
 

Latest revision as of 03:39, 3 March 2022

See also US Sponsored Regime-change efforts since 1945 and US Foreign Assassinations since 1945.

Concept.png US/Bombing campaigns since 1945 
(Foreign policy of the United States,  US intervention)Rdf-entity.pngRdf-icon.png
US Bombings since 1945.jpg
Start1945
List of countries the US has bombed from the air since 1945.

This is a list of countries the US has bombed since 1945. This is in fact only the most visible aspect of US Intervention abroad. In practice, US led assassinations and overthrows of legitimate governments and interference with elections may be just as significant as the actual bombings listed here.

Official narrative

This article was intended as an adjunct to two Wikipedia articles, Timeline of United States military operations (which is extremely long as uses rather biased language) and Covert US foreign regime change actions (deleted in April 2016, but the original content is still available here). Both articles (one of which is rated as of 'low importance') are unclear, lack useful summaries and have big gaps. There was no mention, for example, of the successful World Court action by Nicaragua against the US). The talk page confirm the difficulty faced by editors attempting to restore objectivity to the page in the face of a bevy of editors beholden to the US-sponsored official narrative.

Countries the US has bombed since the end of World War 2

The US is said to have carried out 32 distinct and separate bombing campaigns on 24 different countries between 1945 and 1999.[1] However, the listing below includes later operations as well. In most cases, bombings with aircraft cannot be denied, though in some cases this has been attempted.

Date Country Details Disputed?
2014 -
present		 Iraq and Syria Said to be against ISIS with alleged beheadings as the primary casus belli No
2011 -
present		 Somalia Ongoing drone strikes No
2011 Libya Early US attacks under UNSC 1973 were followed by NATO's “Operation Unified Protector”, leading to regime change and death of Gaddafi. No
2004 -
present		 Yemen Ongoing drone strikes, allegedly targeting terror suspects No
2004 -
present		 Pakistan Ongoing drone strikes, allegedly targeting militants No
2003 -
2011		 Iraq Regime change against Saddam Hussein, an ally who had gone rogue. By all accounts, US Ambassador in Baghdad, April Glaspie, gave Saddam the green light to invade Kuwait in August 1990. She was totally silent on everything until her retirement in 2002 and has not spoken since.[2] No
2001 -
present		 Afghanistan Regime change and boosting the opium trade under the pretext of pursuing Osama Bin Laden. No
1999 Yugoslavia, Serbia Allegedly to stop an ethnic cleansing that had begun or might begin. Targeted television stations and bombed the Chinese Embassy. No
1998 Afghanistan Cruise missiles on Osama Bin Laden's compounds. No
1998 Sudan Cruise missile attack on an antibiotic factory wrongly alleged to be producing WMD. No
1998 Iran ??
1995 Bosnia Serbian forces bombed. Depleted Uranium shells used. No
1992-
1994		 Somalia Known to the West chiefly for "Black Hawk Down" ??
1991 Kuwait See bombing of Iraq, below. Some of the attack took place within Kuwait, leaving quantities of Depleted Uranium, and causing much subsequent concern about cancers. No
1991 Iraq Bombing for 40 days and nights devastated the ancient and modern capital city of one of the most advanced nations in the Middle East. 177 million pounds of bombs fell in the most concentrated aerial onslaught in the history of the world.[1] Genuine multi-national effort and seen by most as a "good war". No
1989 -
1990		 Panama December 1989, a large tenement barrio in Panama City wiped out, 15,000 people left homeless. Casualties disputed.[1] No
1987 -
1988		 Iran Operation Prime Chance, nominally to protect U.S.-flagged oil tankers in the Gulf No
1986 Libya Attempt to kill Gaddafi, Tripoli bombed. Operation El Dorado Canyon, one of more than 50 attempts to assassinate foreign leaders (no listing in Pilger's "The World War on Democracy").[3] No
1979 -
1990		 Nicaragua Ronald Reagan's "freedom fighters." Sandinistas overthrow Somoza dictatorship in 1978, CIA uses profits from drug running to arm the Contras "Iran-Contra" (i.e. Somoza's vicious National Guard and other supporters of the dictator). US was condemned for "terrorism" by the World Court in 1986.[4][5] All-out war, aimed at destroying all social and economic programs of the government, burning down schools and medical clinics, raping, torturing, mining harbors, bombing and strafing. [1] Denied by some?
1981 -
1992		 El Salvador Officially, the U.S. military presence in El Salvador was limited to an advisory capacity. About 20 Americans were killed or wounded in helicopter and plane crashes while flying reconnaissance or other missions over combat areas, and considerable evidence surfaced of a U.S. role in the ground fighting as well. The war came to an official end in 1992; 75,000 civilian deaths at a cost of six billion dollars. Meaningful social change still largely thwarted by 1999. A handful of the wealthy still owned the country, the poor remained as ever, and dissidents still suffered from death squads.[1] By some
1983 -
1984		 Grenada Operation Urgent Fury, termed by the UN General Assembly termed it "a flagrant violation of international law"[6]. No
1982 -
1984		 Lebanon Shelled villages from warship. ??
1969 -
1970		 Cambodia More bombs than the whole of WW2. No
1961 -
1973		 Vietnam South Vietnam devastated. No
1964 -
1975		 Laos "Anti-communism" No
1965 Peru Bombing of Peru and assistance to counter-insurgency operations [7][8] By some
1965 -
1966		 Dominican Republic ??
1964 Guatemala ??
1964 Belgian Congo By some
1961 Cuba The infamous Bay of Pigs invasion, designed to fail, intended to draw JFK into a full scale invasion. No
1960 Guatemala By some
1959 -
1960		 Cuba 40 years of attacks, bombings, full-scale military invasion, sanctions, embargoes, isolation, assassinations.[1] No
1958 Indonesia Large scale killings[citation needed] ??
1954 Guatemala A CIA-organised coup (Operation PBSUCCESS) overthrew the democratically-elected and progressive government of Jacobo Arbenz, initiating over 35 years of death squads, torture, disappearances, mass murder, totaling well over 100,000 victims - one of the most inhuman chapters of the 20th century. Arbenz had nationalized the U.S. firm, United Fruit Company. The Russians had so little interest in the country that it didn't even maintain diplomatic relations.[1] Bombers based in Nicaragua. 200,000 people are eventually dead in a 36 year long Guatemalan Civil War.[9][10][11][12][13] Disputed by some
1950 -
1953		 China By some
1950 -
1953		 Korea At least 20% and perhaps up to 1/3rd of the population killed in order to prevent re-unification. No
1945 -
1946		 China By some

 

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Rogue State: A Guide to the World's Only Superpowerbook2000William BlumA critical examination of United States foreign policy during and following the Cold War
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References

  1. ↑ a b c d e f g A Brief History of U.S. Interventions 1945 to the Present by William Blum - Z magazine, June 1999.
  2. ↑ Is the US State Department still keeping April Glaspie under wraps? Information Clearing House 12/25/2005.
  3. ↑ The World War on Democracy One of more than 50 attempts to assassinate foreign leaders (but no listing) Global Research, John Pilger Jan 19, 2012, citing William Blum's "updated summary of the record of US foreign policy". Since the Second World War" of July 2011.
  4. ↑ Judgment of the International Court of Justice of 27 June 1986 concerning military and paramilitary activities in and against Nicaragua: need for immediate compliance United Nations General Assembly 3 Nov 1986.
  5. ↑ US-Nicaragua (1979-) history of US Interventions cooperative research.
  6. ↑ http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/resguide/r38.htm
  7. ↑ William Blum, Killing Hope: U.S. Military and C.I.A. Interventions since World War II, 2003
  8. ↑ US Bombing Interventions Since WW II, Third World Traveler
  9. ↑ Washington Monthly [SILENCE ON THE MOUNTAIN Stories of Terror, Betrayal, and Forgetting in Guatemala by Daniel Wilkinson Houghton Mifflin.
  10. ↑ "Secret History: The CIA's Classified Account of Its Operations in Guatemala, 1952-1954" Stanford University Press, 2006.
  11. ↑ "Shattered Hope: The Guatemalan Revolution and the United States, 1944-1954" Princeton University Press, 1992.
  12. ↑ "Managing the Counterrevolution: The United States and Guatemala, 1954-1961" Ohio University Press, 2000.
  13. ↑ "U.S. Foreign Policy toward Radical Change: Covert Operations in Guatemala, 1950-1954". Latin American Perspectives, 1983, Vol. 10, No. 1, p. 88-102.
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