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| − | {{Infobox military conflict | + | {{event |
| − | | conflict = 1986 United States bombing of Libya<br /><small>(Operation ''El Dorado Canyon'')</small> | + | |wikipedia=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1986_United_States_bombing_of_Libya |
| − | | partof = the [[Cold War]]
| + | |image=USF-111 Libya1986.JPG |
| − | | image = [[File:USF-111 Libya1986.JPG|300px]] | + | |image_caption= An American 48th Tactical Fighter Wing F-111F aircraft takes off from RAF Lakenheath in April 1986 to participate in an air strike against Libya. |
| − | | caption = An American 48th Tactical Fighter Wing [[F-111]]F aircraft takes off from [[RAF Lakenheath]] in April 1986 to participate in an air strike against Libya. | + | |constitutes=Mass murder, bombing, mid-level deep event |
| − | | date = 15 April 1986 | + | |fatalities=70 |
| − | | place = [[Libya]] | + | |start=15 April 1986 |
| − | | casus = | + | |end=15 April 1986 |
| − | | result = | + | |perpetrators=US Air Force, US Navy, US Marine Corps |
| − | *Bombing targets damaged
| + | |description=A tactical air attack on [[Libya]] by the [[United States]] which targeted [[Muammar Gaddafi]] but missed |
| − | *[[Muammar Gaddafi]] survived
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| − | *Failed Libyan [[scud]] missile response
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| − | | combatant1 = {{Flag|United States}} | |
| − | | combatant2 = {{nowrap|{{Flagicon|Libya|1977}} [[History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi#Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (1977–2011)|Libya]]}} | |
| − | | commander1 = {{flagicon|United States}} [[Ronald Reagan]]
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| − | | commander2 = {{flagicon|Libya|1977}} [[Muammar Gaddafi]]
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| − | | strength1 =
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| − | | strength2 =
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| − | | casualties1 = 1 [[General Dynamics F-111|F-111]] shot down/crashed <br> 2 aircrew killed
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| − | | casualties2 = 45 soldiers and officials killed<br>3–5 [[Ilyushin Il-76|IL-76]] transports destroyed<br>14 [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23|MiG-23]]s destroyed<br>2 helicopters destroyed<br> 5 major ground radars destroyed<ref>Pollack, Kenneth M. ''Arabs At War, Military Effectiveness 1948–1991'' University of Nebraska Press, 2002</ref>
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| − | | casualties3 = 15-30 Libyan civilians killed
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| − | | campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Libya-US}}
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| | }} | | }} |
| | + | The '''1986 United States bombing of Libya''', code-named '''Operation El Dorado Canyon''', took place on Tuesday, 15 April 1986. The air strikes were carried out by the US Air Force, US Navy and US Marine Corps in response to the [[1986 Berlin discotheque bombing]], for which [[Libya]] had been framed by the [[CIA]]. |
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| − | The '''1986 United States bombing of Libya''', code-named '''Operation El Dorado Canyon''', comprised air strikes by the [[United States]] against [[Libya]] on Tuesday, 15 April 1986. The attack was carried out by the US Air Force, US Navy and US Marine Corps via air strikes, in response to the [[1986 Berlin discotheque bombing]]. There were 40 reported Libyan casualties, and one US plane was shot down, resulting in the death of two airmen.
| + | One F-111 fighter-bomber was shot down, resulting in the death of two US airmen, but the target of Operation El Dorado Canyon [[Muammar Gaddafi]] was not among the many reported Libyan casualties.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/15/newsid_3975000/3975455.stm "1986: US launches air strikes on Libya"]</ref> |
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| − | ==Origins== | + | ==Targeting Gaddafi== |
| − | [[File:Libya Bombing Reagan Meeting 14 March 1986.jpg|thumb|left|President Reagan consults bipartisan Congress members about the strike]] | + | On 22 February 1987, journalist [[Seymour Hersh]] detailed the failure of the US bombing mission in a ''New York Times'' magazine article entitled "Target Gaddafi": |
| − | [[File:F-111F GBU-10 bound for Libya.jpg|thumb|Ground crew prepares a 48th Tactical Fighter Wing F-111F aircraft for an air strike on Libya]]
| + | |
| | + | Eighteen American warplanes set out from Lakenheath Air Base in England last April 14 to begin a 14-hour, 5,400-mile round-trip flight to Tripoli, Libya. It is now clear that nine of those Air Force F-111's had an unprecedented peacetime mission. Their targets: [[Muammar Gaddafi|Col. Muammar al-Gaddafi]] and his family. |
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| − | Libya represented a high priority for President [[Ronald Reagan]] shortly after his 1981 inauguration. Libyan leader [[Muammar Gaddafi]] was firmly anti-Israel and had supported violent organisations in the Palestinian territories and Syria. There were reports that Libya was attempting to become a nuclear power<ref>{{cite journal |title=Libya Has Trouble Building the Most Deadly Weapons |url=http://www.wisconsinproject.org/countries/libya/trouble.html |journal=The Risk Report |volume=1 |issue=10 |date=December 1995}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Libya/Nuclear/index.html |title=1968 to 1990: Program Beginnings |publisher=NTI}}</ref> and Gaddafi's occupation of Chad, which was rich in uranium, was of major concern to the United States. Gaddafi's alignment with the [[Soviet Union]] and his ambitions to set up a federation of Arab and Muslim states in North Africa were also alarming to US interests. Furthermore, then-Secretary of State [[Alexander Haig]] wanted to take proactive measures against Gaddafi because he had been using former [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) operatives to help set up terrorist camps (most notably Edwin P. Wilson and Frank E. Terpil).<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/1987/02/22/magazine/target-qaddafi.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm | work=The New York Times | first=Seymour M. | last=Hersh | title=TARGET QADDAFI | date=22 February 1987}}</ref>
| + | The mission, authorised by the White House, was to be the culmination of a five-year clandestine effort by the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan Administration]] to eliminate Gaddafi, who had been described a few days earlier by the President as the "mad dog of the Middle East." |
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| − | After the December 1985 Rome and Vienna airport attacks, which killed 19 and wounded approximately 140, Gaddafi indicated that he would continue to support the [[Red Army Faction]], the [[Red Brigades]], and the [[Irish Republican Army]] as long as the European governments supported anti-Gaddafi Libyans.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=St. John|first=Ronald Bruce|title=Libyan terrorism: the case against Gaddafi|publisher=Contemporary Review|date=1 December 1992 }}</ref>
| + | Since early 1981, the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] had been encouraging and abetting Libyan exile groups and foreign governments, especially those of [[Egypt]] and [[France]], in their efforts to stage a coup d'etat - and kill, if necessary - the bizarre Libyan strongman. But Gaddafi, with his repeated threats to [[President Reagan]] and support of international terrorism, survived every confrontation and in the spring of 1986 continued to be solidly in control of Libya's 3 million citizens. Now the supersonic Air Force F-111's were ordered to accomplish what the [[CIA]] could not. |
| − | The Foreign Minister of Libya also called the massacres "heroic acts".<ref>Patrick Seale ''Abu Nidal: A Gun for Hire''. Hutchinson, 1992, p. 245.</ref>
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| − | After years of occasional skirmishes with Libya over Libyan territorial claims to the Gulf of Sidra, the United States contemplated a military attack to strike targets within the Libyan mainland. In March 1986, the United States, asserting the {{convert|12|nmi|km mi|sing=on}} limit to territorial waters according to international law, sent a carrier task force to the region. Libya responded with aggressive counter-manoeuvres on 24 March that led to the Gulf of Sidra incident.
| + | That the assassination of Gaddafi was the primary goal of the Libyan bombing is a conclusion reached after three months of interviews with more than 70 current and former officials in the White House, the [[State Department]], the Central Intelligence Agency, the [[National Security Agency]] and the [[Pentagon]]. These sources, a number of whom were closely involved in the planning of the Tripoli raid, agreed to talk only if their names were not used. Many of them, however, corroborated key information. The interviews depict a White House decision-making process that by early last year was relying on internal manipulation and deceit to shield true policy from the professionals in the State Department and the Pentagon. |
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| − | On 5 April 1986, Libyan agents [[La Belle discotheque bombing|bombed "La Belle" nightclub in West Berlin]], killing three people, one being a US Serviceman,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bailey|first1=Thomas|last2=Kennedy|first2=David|last3=Cohen|first3=Lizabeth|title=The American Pageant|date=1998|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company|location=222 Berkley St., Boston, MA, 02116|isbn=0-669-39728-8|page=1000|edition=Eleventh}}</ref> and injuring 229 people who were spending the evening there. West Germany and the United States obtained cable transcripts from Libyan agents in [[East Germany]] who were involved in the attack.
| + | The interviews also led to these findings: |
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| − | More detailed information was retrieved years later when [[Stasi]] archives were investigated by the reunited Germany. Libyan agents who had carried out the operation from the Libyan embassy in East Germany were identified and prosecuted by Germany in the 1990s.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1653848.stm Flashback: The Berlin disco bombing]. BBC on 13 November 2001.</ref>
| + | * The attempt last April on Gaddafi's life was plotted by a small group of military and civilian officials in the National Security Council. These officials, aware of the political risks, operated with enormous care. A back channel was set up to limit information to a few inside the Government; similar steps had been taken the year before to shield the equally sensitive secret talks and arms dealings with Iran. |
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| − | After several unproductive days of meeting with European and Arab nations, and influenced by an American serviceman's death, Ronald Reagan, on 14 April 1986, ordered an air raid on Libya. Eighteen F-111F strike aircraft of the 48th Tactical Fighter Wing, flying from RAF Lakenheath in Suffolk and supported by four EF-111A Ravens of the 20th Tactical Fighter Wing from RAF Upper Heyford in Oxfordshire, in conjunction with fifteen A-6 Intruder, A-7 Corsair II, F/A-18 Hornet attack aircraft and EA-6B Prowler Electronic Warfare Aircraft from the aircraft carriers USS ''Saratoga'', USS ''America'' and USS ''Coral Sea'' on station in the Gulf of Sidra, struck five targets at 02:00 on 15 April, with the stated objectives of sending a message and reducing Libya's ability to support and train terrorists. Reagan warned that "if necessary, [they] shall do it again."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1986/Strike-on-Qaddafi-and-Soviet-Espionage/12297050136623-4/|title=1986 Year in Review: Strike on Qaddafi|work=UPI|accessdate=28 October 2014}}</ref>
| + | * Much of the secret planning for the [[Iran]] and Libyan operations took place simultaneously, so that the Administration was pursuing the elimination of one Middle East source of terrorism while it was trading arms with another. The two missions involved the same people, including [[John Poindexter|John M. Poindexter]], then the national security adviser, and [[Oliver North|Oliver L. North]], the NSC's deputy director for political-military affairs. |
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| − | The attack mission against Libya had been preceded in October 1985 by an exercise in which the 20th TFW stationed at RAF Upper Heyford airbase in the UK, which was equipped with F-111Es, received a top secret order to launch a simulated attack mission on 18 October, with ten F-111Es armed with eight 500 lb practice bombs, against a simulated airfield located in Newfoundland, Canada south of CFB Goose Bay. The mission was designated '''Operation Ghost Rider'''. The mission was a full rehearsal for a long range strike against Libya. The mission was completed successfully, with the exception of one aircraft that had all but one of its eight bombs hang up on one of its wing racks. The lessons learned were passed on to the 48th TFW which was equipped with the newer "F" models of the F-111.<ref>Warren Thompson "To the Bay and Back" Air Forces Monthly May 2010 published by Key Publishing Ltd</ref>
| + | * There was widespread concern and anger inside the National Security Council over the Administration's handling of the Libyan messages intercepted immediately after the [[1986 Berlin discotheque bombing|April 5 terrorist bombing of a West Berlin discotheque]]. The White House's reliance on these messages as ''irrefutable'' evidence that Libya was behind that bombing was immediately challenged by some allies, most notably West Germany. Some NSC experts now express similar doubts because the normal intelligence channels for translating and interpreting such messages were purposely bypassed. As of this month, the NSC's North African specialists had still not been shown these intercepts. |
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| − | Elements of the then-secret 4450th Tactical Group (USAF) were put on standby to fly the strike mission against Libya. Over 30 F-117s had already been delivered to Tactical Air Command (USAF) and were operating from Tonopah Test Range Airport in Nevada. Commanders in the North Africa/Mediterranean theatres knew nothing about the capabilities of the F-117, or that the aircraft even existed. Within an hour of the planned launch of the F-117s, the Secretary of Defense scrubbed the stealth mission, fearing a compromise of the secret aircraft and its development program. The air strike was carried out with conventional US Navy and US Air Force aircraft. The F-117 would remain completely unknown to the world for several more months, before being unveiled in 1988 and featured prominently in media coverage of [[Operation Desert Storm]].
| + | * [[William J. Casey]], then [[Director of Central Intelligence]], personally served as the intelligence officer for a secret task force on Libya set up in mid-1981, and he provided intelligence that could not be confirmed by his subordinates. Some task force members suspected that much of Casey's information, linking Gaddafi to alleged ''hit teams'' that were said to be targeting President Reagan and other senior White House aides, was fabricated by him. |
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| − | For the Libyan raid, the United States was denied overflight rights by [[France]], [[Spain]], and [[Italy]] as well as the use of European continental bases, forcing the Air Force portion of the operation to be flown around France and Spain, over [[Portugal]] and through the [[Straits of Gibraltar]], adding 1,300 miles (2,100 km) each way and requiring multiple aerial refuelings.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5HFvmqCJNhsC&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=portugal+1986+overflight&source=bl&ots=aC9lPogdKt&sig=qsdNnRR44Ipjw24MuqU9eVYx6NQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CDIQ6AEwA2oVChMIjJDd0d6VxgIVUTuICh13ogDu#v=onepage&q=portugal%201986%20overflight&f=false | title=Overseas Basing of U.S. Military Forces: An Assessment of Relative Costs and Strategic Benefits | publisher=RAND Corporation | pages=103 | isbn=0833079174}}</ref> The French refusal alone added 2,800 km and was imposed despite the fact that France had itself been the target of terrorism directed by the Gaddafi government in Libya.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.nytimes.com/1986/04/23/world/french-say-they-favored-stronger-attack-on-libya.html | title=FRENCH SAY THEY FAVORED STRONGER ATTACK ON LIBYA | work=The New York Times | date=April 23, 1986 | accessdate=June 16, 2015 | author=Bernstein, Richard}}</ref> French president [[François Mitterrand]] refused overflight clearance because the United States was interested in limited action in Libya while France was more interested in major action that would remove Gaddafi from power.
| + | President Reagan's direct involvement in the intrigue against Gaddafi - as in the [[Iran-Contra affair|Iran-Contra crisis]] - is difficult to assess. The President is known to have relied heavily on Casey's intelligence and was a strong supporter of covert action against Gaddafi. But Mr Reagan initially resisted when the National Security Council staff began urging the bombing of Libya in early 1986. Some former NSC staff members acknowledge that they and their colleagues used stratagems to win the President over to their planning.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/1987/02/22/magazine/target-qaddafi.html "Target Qaddafi"]</ref> |
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| − | ==The raid== | + | ==US-Libya compensation agreement== |
| − | [[File:Il-76 destroyed Operation El Dorado Canyon.jpg|thumb|Ilyushin Il-76 targeted by the bombing]] | + | On 31 October 2008, [[CNN]] reported: |
| − | The attack began at 0200 hours (Libyan time), and lasted about twelve minutes, with 60 tons of munitions dropped. Eighteen F-111 bombers supported by four EF-111 electronic countermeasures aircraft flying from the United Kingdom bombed Tripoli airfield, a frogman training centre at a naval academy, and the Bab al-Azizia barracks in Tripoli. During the bombing of the Bab al-Azizia barracks, an American F-111 was shot down by a Libyan surface-to-air missile (SAM) over the Gulf of Sidra. Some bombs landed off-target, striking diplomatic and civilian sites in Tripoli, and narrowly missing the French embassy. Some Libyan soldiers abandoned their positions in fright and confusion, and officers were slow to give orders. Libyan anti-aircraft fire did not begin until after the planes had passed over their targets. Twenty-four A-6 Intruders and F/A-18 Hornets launched from aircraft carriers bombed radar and anti-aircraft sites in Benghazi before bombing the Benina and Jamahiriya barracks.<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/el_dorado_canyon.htm "Operation El Dorado Canyon"]</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1986/04/15/politics/15REAG.html|work=NY Times|title=U.S. Jets Hit 'Terrorist Centers' in Libya; Reagan Warns of New Attacks If Needed|author=Bernard Weinraub|date=15 April 1986}}</ref><ref>[http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-8251.html "Libya – Encounters with the United States"]</ref>
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| − | ===US forces and targets===
| + | "Libya has paid $1.5 billion to the families of terrorism victims, overcoming the final obstacle to full relations with the United States, the State Department said Friday. |
| − | {| class="wikitable" style="font-size:98%;"
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| − | |+Operation results<ref>[https://research.maxwell.af.mil/papers/ay2003/saas/phinney.pdf AIRPOWER VERSUS TERRORISM: THREE CASE STUDIES], Thesis, June 2003, p.20</ref>
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| − | !colspan=2 rowspan=2| Target
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| − | !colspan=2 width="250px"| Planned
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| − | !colspan=3 width="250px"| Actual
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| − | |-
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| − | !Aircraft !!Bombing
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| − | !Aircraft !!Hit !!Miss
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| − | |-valign="top"
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| − | | colspan=2| [[Bab al-Azizia]] barracks
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| − | | 9× F-111F || 36× [[GBU-10 Paveway II|GBU-10]] {{convert|2000|lb|abbr=on}} LGB
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| − | | 3× bombed <br> 1× missed <br> 4× aborts <br> 1× lost
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| − | | align="center"| 13
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| − | | align="center"| 3
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| − | |-valign="top"
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| − | | colspan=2| Murat Sidi Bilal camp
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| − | | 3× F-111F || 12× GBU-10 2,000 lb LGB
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| − | | all bombed
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| − | | align="center"| 12
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| − | | align="center"| –
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| − | |-valign="top"
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| − | | colspan=2| Tripoli airfield<br />(fmr. [[Wheelus Air Base]])
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| − | | 6× F-111F || 72× [[Mark 82 bomb|Mk 82]] {{convert|500|lb|abbr=on}} RDB
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| − | | 5× bombed <br> 1× abort
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| − | | align="center"| 60
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| − | | align="center"| –
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| − | |-valign="top"
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| − | | colspan=2| Jamahiriyah (Benghazi) barracks
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| − | | 7× A-6E || 84× Mk 82 500 lb RDB
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| − | | 6× bombed <br> 1× abort on deck
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| − | | align="center"| 70
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| − | | align="center"| 2
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| − | |-valign="top"
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| − | | colspan=2| Benina airfield
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| − | | 8× A-6E || 72× Mk 20 500 lb CBU <br> 24× Mk 82 500 lb RDB
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| − | | 6× bombed <br> 2× aborts
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| − | | 60× Mk 20 <br> 12× Mk 82
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| − | | align="center"| –
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| − | |-valign="top"
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| − | | rowspan=2 | Air defense<br />networks
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| − | | Tripoli
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| − | | 6× A-7E || 8× [[AGM-45 Shrike|Shrike]] <br> 16× [[AGM-88 HARM|HARM]]
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| − | | all aircraft fired
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| − | | colspan=2 align="center"| 8× Shrike <br> 16× HARM
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| − | |-valign="top"
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| − | | Benghazi
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| − | | 6× F/A-18 || 4× Shrike <br> 20× HARM
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| − | | all aircraft fired
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| − | | colspan=2 align="center"| 4× Shrike <br> 20× HARM
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| − | |-
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| − | ! colspan=2|Totals || 45 aircraft || 300 bombs <br> 48 missiles || 35 bombed <br> 1 missed <br> 1 lost <br> 8 aborts || colspan=2|227 hits <br> 5 misses <br> 48 homing missiles
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| − | |}
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| − | ===Libyan air defences===
| + | "The payment ends Tripoli's legal liability in US terror cases and paves the way for increased US involvement in the oil-rich nation. |
| − | The Libyan air defence network was extensive, and included: | |
| − | * 4 Long range S-200 Angara/Vega/Dubna ''Vega'' anti-aircraft missile units with 24 launchers.
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| − | * 86 S-75 Dvina ''Volkhov'' and S-125|SA-3 ''Neva'' anti-aircraft missile units with 276 launchers.
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| − | Covering Tripoli alone were:
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| − | * 7 S-75 Dvina ''Volkhov'' anti-aircraft missile units with 6 missiles launchers per unit giving 42 launchers.
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| − | * 12 S-125 ''Neva'' anti-aircraft missile units with 4 missiles launchers per unit giving 48 launchers.
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| − | * 3 2K12 ''Kub'' anti-aircraft missile units with 48 launchers.
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| − | * 1 9K33 ''Osa-AK'' anti-aircraft regiment with 16 launch vehicles.
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| − | * 2 Crotale II anti-aircraft units with 60 launch pads.
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| − | ==Casualties==
| + | "[[George W Bush|President Bush]] signed an executive order Friday restoring Libyan immunity from terrorism-related lawsuits and dismissing pending cases over compensation as part of a deal reached this summer. |
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| − | ===Libyan===
| + | "[[David Welch]], the top US diplomat for the Middle East, who negotiated the agreement, called Libya's rehabilitation from a terrorist nation to a US ally 'historic'. |
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| − | Forewarned by a telephone call, Libyan leader [[Muammar Gaddafi]] and his family rushed out of their residence in the Bab al-Azizia compound moments before the bombs dropped. It was long thought that the call came from [[Malta]]'s Prime Minister, Karmenu Mifsud Bonnici.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20100121/local/libya-again-thanks-malta-for-warning-of-us-bombing.290611|title=Libya thanks Malta for warning of US bombing|work=Times of Malta|accessdate=28 October 2014}}</ref> However, Italian politician [[Bettino Craxi]] was the person who actually warned Gaddafi, according to [[Giulio Andreotti]], Italy's foreign minister at the time, and to [[Abdel Rahman Shalgham]], Libya's then-ambassador to Italy.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.monstersandcritics.com/news/europe/news/article_1440085.php/Italy_helped_"save"_Gaddafi_by_warning_of_US_air_raid__Extra__|title=Italy helped "save" Gaddafi by warning of US air raid|newspaper=[[Monsters and Critics]]|location=Rome|date=30 October 2008|accessdate=25 February 2011}}</ref> Shalgham's statement was also confirmed by Margherita Boniver, foreign affairs chief of Craxi's Socialist Party at the time.<ref>[http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601103&sid=asdtPeIfTReg&refer=us Italy Warned Libya of Bombing, Saved Qaddafi's Life (Update3)]''Bloomberg.com'' – Retrieved 4 November 2008</ref>
| + | "The pact closes the book on a contentious period in US-Libyan relations, which began in the [[1980s]] with a series of attacks involving the two countries, including the bombings of [[Pan Am Flight 103]], [[La Belle discotheque bombing|a German disco]] and US airstrikes over Libya. |
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| − | According to medical staff in a nearby hospital, two dozen casualties were brought in wearing military uniforms, and two without uniforms. Total Libyan casualties were estimated at 60, including those at the bombed airbases. An infant girl was among the casualties; her body was shown to American reporters, who were told she was Gaddafi's recently adopted daughter Hannah. However, there was and remains much skepticism over the claim.<ref>{{cite web|author=Cliff Kincaid — 22 February 2011 |url=http://www.aim.org/aim-column/nbc%E2%80%99s-mitchell-regurgitates-gaddafi-lies/ |title=See Accuracy in Media article here |publisher=Aim.org |date=22 February 2011 |accessdate=25 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/08/09/hana-gaddafi-libyan-leader-daughter-alive-_n_922043.html|title=Hana Gaddafi, Libyan Leader's Presumed Dead Daughter, May Be Still Alive: Reports|work=Huffington Post |accessdate=1 September 2011|first=Curtis|last=Wong|date=9 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://feb17.info/news/dental-records-for-hana-gaddafi-reopen-mystery-of-libyan-leaders-daughter|title=Dental records for Hana Gaddafi reopen mystery of Libyan leader's daughter|publisher=Feb17.info|date=12 August 2011|accessdate=1 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=27 August 2011|newspaper=The New York Times|title=Enigmatic in Power, Qaddafi Is Elusive at Large|author=Anthony Shadid}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8698804/Dental-records-for-Hana-Gaddafi-reopen-mystery-of-Muammar-Gaddafis-daughter.html|title=Dental Records for Hana Gaddafi reopen mystery of Muammar Gaddafi's daughter|work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |date=12 August 2011|accessdate=30 August 2011}}</ref>
| + | "US business executives hope the new relationship will lead to billions of dollars of new investment in Libya, a country rich in petroleum reserves but lacking a developed infrastructure. |
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| − | ===American===
| + | "This summer, the United States and Libya signed a deal for the State Department to create a $1.8 billion compensation fund to finalise the claims for the [[Pan Am Flight 103|1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland]], and the [[La Belle discotheque bombing|1986 bombing of La Belle disco in Berlin, Germany]]. It also compensates Libyan victims of US airstrikes in the 1980s. |
| − | Two US Air Force captains — [[Fernando L. Ribas-Dominicci]] and [[Paul F. Lorence]] — were killed when their F-111 fighter-bomber was shot down<ref>''The sad note is we have to assume the 2 missing men are dead. Evidence indicates their plane was shot down just off shore after dropping it's bombs.'' Reagan Diaries Volume 2: November 1985-January 1989, Ronald Reagan, Douglas Brinkley, p. 590, Harper Collins, 2010</ref><ref>''Libya soon recovered the body of Captain Ribas-Dominicci but did not return it to the United States until 1989. An autopsy determined the cause of death to be drowning, not massive physical trauma ... the autopsy finding and the eyewitness accounts of several aviators who saw the explosion and the descent of the fireball to the sea support the conclusion that Karma-52 was shot down by a SAM or AAA.'' El Dorado Canyon, Joseph T. Stanik, p. 190, Naval Institute Press, 2003</ref> over the Gulf of Sidra. In the hours following the attack, the US military refused to speculate as to whether or not the fighter-bomber had been shot down, with Defense Secretary [[Caspar Weinberger]] suggesting that it could have experienced radio trouble or been diverted to another airfield.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=V2lQAAAAIBAJ&sjid=u1kDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6279,4040553&hl=en|title=One plane missing after raid. |newspaper= The Evening Independent |date= 15 April 1986 |accessdate=28 October 2014}}</ref> The next day, the Pentagon had announced it was no longer searching for the F-111 believed to be downed by a Libyan missile.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1300&dat=19860417&id=bnczAAAAIBAJ&sjid=65IDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3105,4597235&hl=en |title= Air Raid Toll Comes Home to Gaddafi |newspaper= The Age |location= Melbourne |first= Tony |last= Walker |date= 17 April 1986 }}<!--Dateline is Tripoli, April 16--></ref> On 25 December 1988, Gaddafi offered to release the body of Lorence to his family through Pope John Paul II. The body, returned in 1989, was identified as Ribas-Dominicci's from dental records. An autopsy conducted in Spain confirmed that he had drowned after his plane was shot down over the Gulf of Sidra. Libya denies that it held Lorence's body. However, Lorence's brother said that he and his mother saw television footage of a Libyan holding a white helmet with the name "Lorence" stenciled on the back.<ref>{{cite news|last=Kay|first=Jennifer|date=29 April 2006|url=http://www.aiipowmia.com/inter26/in290406libyalost.html|title=Lost Over Libya|publisher=Associated Press}}</ref> Furthermore, [[William C. Chasey]], who toured the Bab al-Azizia barracks, claimed to have seen two flight suits and helmets engraved with the names "Lorence" and "Ribas-Dominicci", as well as the wreckage of their F-111.<ref>Chasey, William C. – ''Pan Am 103: The Lockerbie Cover-Up'' (Chapter 18)</ref>
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| − | In 2001, Theodore D. Karantsalis, a reference librarian at Miami-Dade College, enlisted the aid of Congressman Wally Herger's office to petition Libya to return Lorence's remains on behalf of his family and friends. Karantsalis also created a website and invited visitors to sign a petition to Congressman Lincoln Diaz-Balart seeking the return of Capt. Lorence's remains. On 27 January 2005, Karantsalis filed a federal lawsuit under the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) against the US Department of Defense and the Department of the Air Force seeking "to know where Captain Paul Lorence's remains are located." Karantsalis had hoped to locate the remains before the 20th anniversary of Lorence's death.<ref>{{cite news |title=2006 – One Pilot Still In Enemy Hands|date=11 March 2006|publisher=Contra Costa Times|url=http://www.pownetwork.org/libya.htm |accessdate=2008-08-07}}</ref>
| + | "Congress unanimously adopted the [[Libyan Claims Resolution Act]], sponsored by Senator [[Frank Lautenberg|Frank R. Lautenberg]], D-New Jersey, which cleared the way to end the feud and created the victim compensation fund. |
| | | | |
| − | ==Aftermath==
| + | "Under the agreement, Libya pays more than $500 million to settle remaining claims from the Lockerbie case and more than $280 million for victims of the disco bombing. It will also set aside funds to compensate victims of several other incidents blamed on Libya, although Libya has not accepted responsibility. |
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| − | ===In Libya===
| + | "In exchange, Libya will now be exempt from legislation passed this year enabling terrorism victims to be compensated using frozen assets of governments blamed for attacks. Tripoli sought the protection to encourage US companies to invest in Libya without fear of being sued by terrorism victims or their families."<ref>[http://lockerbiecase.blogspot.co.uk/2008/08/patrick-haseldine-on-us-libya.html?showComment=1308406597823#c4154512292945486332 "US-Libya compensation agreement"]</ref> |
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| − | ====Gaddafi's announcements==== | + | ==Destroying Libya== |
| − | Gaddafi announced that he had "won a spectacular military victory over the United States" and the country was officially renamed the "Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriyah".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Qaddafi, terrorism, and the origins of the U.S. attack on Libya.|first=Brian L.|last=Davis|page=183|publisher=Praeger Publishers|location=New York|year=1990|isbn=0-275-93302-4}}</ref>
| + | [[File:Destroying_Libya_and_World_Order.jpg|400px|right|thumb|[http://www.amazon.com/Destroying-Libya-World-Order-Three-Decade/dp/0985335378 ''Destroying Libya and World Order: The Three-Decade US Campaign to Reverse the Qaddafi Revolution''] ]] |
| | + | In his 2013 book [http://www.amazon.com/Destroying-Libya-World-Order-Three-Decade/dp/0985335378 ''Destroying Libya and World Order: The Three-Decade US Campaign to Reverse the Qaddafi Revolution''], Professor [[Francis Boyle]] described how the 1986 United States bombing of Libya was part of a long-term strategy to resubjugate Libya. |
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| − | Gaddafi said reconciliation between Libya and the United States was impossible so long as Reagan was in the White House; of the president he said, "He is mad. He is foolish. He is an Israeli dog." He said he had no plans to attack the United States or US targets. He claimed that Reagan wanted to kill him, stating "Was Reagan trying to kill me? Of course. The attack was concentrated on my house and I was in my house", he also described how he rescued his family.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1986-06-20/news/8602060350_1_moammar-gadhafi-white-house-wife|title=Gadhafi: Reagan Tried To Kill Me|work=Sun Sentinel|accessdate=28 October 2014}}</ref>
| + | It took three decades for the United States government — spanning and working assiduously over five different presidential administrations ([[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]], [[George H W Bush|Bush I]], [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]], [[George W Bush|Bush II]], and [[Barack Obama|Obama]]) — to overthrow and reverse the 1969 [[Gaddafi]] Revolution in order to resubjugate Libya, seize control over its oil fields, and dismantle its Jamahiriya system. |
| − | When asked that if he was in danger of losing power, he said "Really, these reports and writings are not true. As you can see I am fine, and there has been no change in our country."
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| | | | |
| − | ====Other events====
| + | This book tells the story of what happened, why it happened, and what was both wrong and illegal with what happened from the perspective of an international law professor and lawyer who tried for over three decades to stop it. [[Francis Boyle]], who served as [[Gaddafi]]'s lawyer at the [[World Court]], provides a comprehensive history and critique of American foreign policy toward Libya from when the Reagan administration came to power in January of 1981 up to the [[NATO]] war on Libya that ultimately achieved the US goal of [[regime change]]. |
| − | The Government of Libya said that the United States had fallen prey to arrogance and madness of power and wanted to become the world's policeman. It charged that any party that did not agree to become an American vassal was an outlaw, a terrorist, and a devil. Gaddafi quashed an internal revolt, the organisation of which he blamed on the United States, although Gaddafi appeared to have left the public sphere for a time in 1986 and 1987.
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| − | The Libyan Post Office dedicated several postage stamps issues to the event, from 1986 until 2001. The first issue was released in 1986, 13 July (ref. Scott catalogue n.1311 – Michel catalogue n.1699). The last issue was released in 2001, 15 April (ref. Scott catalogue n.1653 – Michel catalogue n.2748–2763).<ref>[http://www.libyan-stamps.com/page2000-2001.htm Libyan Stamps online]</ref>
| + | He deals with the repeated series of military conflicts and crises between the United States and Libya over the Gulf of Sidra and the fraudulent US claims of Libyan instigation of international terrorism during the eight years of the neoconservative Reagan administration. He reveals the flimsy factual basis and legal machinations behind the [[Pan Am Flight 103|Lockerbie bombing]] allegations against Libya initiated by the Bush administrations I and II. |
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| − | ===Libyan retaliation===
| + | In 2011, under the guise of the UN R2P "responsibility to protect” doctrine newly-contrived to provide legal cover for Western intervention into third world countries, and override the UN Charter commitment to prevention of aggression and state sovereignty, the NATO assault led to 50,000 Libyan casualties and the complete breakdown of law and order. Boyle analyses and debunks the doctrines of R2P and its immediate predecessor, "humanitarian intervention", in accordance with the standard recognised criteria of international law. This book provides an excellent case study of the conduct of US foreign policy as it relations to international law.<ref>[http://www.amazon.com/Destroying-Libya-World-Order-Three-Decade/dp/0985335378 "Destroying Libya and World Order: The Three-Decade U.S. Campaign to Terminate the Qaddafi Revolution"]</ref> |
| | + | {{SMWDocs}} |
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| − | ====Immediate====
| + | ==References== |
| − | Libya responded by firing two Scud missiles at a United States Coast Guard station on the Italian island of Lampedusa which passed over the island and landed in the sea.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/libya/missile.htm|title=Libyan Missiles|author=John Pike|publisher=|accessdate=28 October 2014}}</ref>
| + | {{reflist}} |
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| − | ====Later Libyan-connected terrorism====
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| − | There was only limited change in Libyan-connected terrorism. The Libyan government was alleged to have ordered the hijacking of [[Pan Am Flight 73]] in [[Pakistan]] on 5 September 1986, which resulted in the deaths of 20 people. The allegation did not come to light until it was reported by ''The Sunday Times'' in March 2004—days after British Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] paid the first official visit to [[Tripoli]] by a Western leader in a generation.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article1052614.ece|title=Revealed: Gaddafi's air massacre plot | location=London | work=The Times | date=28 March 2004 | accessdate=26 April 2010 | first=Jon | last=Swain}}</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | In May 1987, Australia deported diplomats and broke off relations with Libya, claiming Libya sought to fuel violence in Australia and Oceania.<ref>The Middle East and North Africa 2003 (2002). Eur. p. 758</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aijac.org.au/review/2003/282/Libya-return.html |title=A Rogue Returns |publisher=AIJAC |date=February 2003}}</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | In late 1987 French authorities stopped a merchant vessel, the MV ''Eksund'', which was delivering 150 tons of Soviet arms from Libya to the Irish Republican Army (IRA) which included around 1,000 AK-47 machine guns, a million rounds of ammunition, more than 50 ground-to-air missiles and two tonnes of the powerful Czech-made explosive, Semtex.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/8241393.stm "Libya's 30-year link to the IRA"]</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | In Beirut, [[Lebanon]], two British hostages held by the Libyan-supported Abu Nidal Organisation, Leigh Douglas and Philip Padfield, along with an American named Peter Kilburn, were shot dead in revenge. In addition, journalist John McCarthy was kidnapped, and tourist Paul Appleby was murdered in Jerusalem. Another British hostage named Alec Collett was also killed in retaliation for the bombing of Libya. Collett was shown being hanged in a video tape. His body was found in November 2009.<ref>[http://english.cri.cn/6966/2009/11/21/1821s530862.htm "Body of Lost British Reporter Found in Lebanon"]</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | On 21 December 1988, came the bombing of [[Pan Am Flight 103]], which exploded in mid-air and crashed on the town of Lockerbie in Scotland after a bomb detonated, killing all 259 people aboard, and 11 people in Lockerbie. Iran was initially thought to have been responsible for the bombing in revenge for the [[Iran Air Flight 655|downing of the Iranian Airbus]] by the USS ''Vincennes'', but in 1991 two Libyans were charged, one of whom [[Abdelbaset al-Megrahi]] was convicted in January 2001 of the Lockerbie bombing in a controversial judgement.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/1872996.stm|title=UN monitor decries Lockerbie judgement|publisher=BBC | date=14 March 2002}}</ref> The Libyan Government accepted responsibility for the [[Pan Am Flight 103]] bombing on 29 May 2002, and offered $2.7 billion to compensate the families of the 270 victims.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2003/sc7868.doc.htm|title=Security Council lifts sanctions imposed on Libya after terrorist bombings of Pan Am Flight 103 and UTA Flight 772}}</ref> The convicted Libyan, [[Abdelbaset al-Megrahi]], who was suffering from terminal prostate cancer, was released in August 2009 by the Scottish Government on compassionate grounds. He died in 2012. In May 2014 the [[Justice for Megrahi]] group, which included relatives of Lockerbie victims, continued to campaign for al-Megrahi's name to be cleared by reopening the case.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-south-scotland-27298089|title=BBC News - Lockerbie bombing: Megrahi conviction review sought by families|date=6 May 2014|work=BBC Online|accessdate=10 May 2014}}</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | ===International response===
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| − | | |
| − | ====Immediate====
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| − | The attack was condemned by many countries. By a vote of 79 in favour to 28 against with 33 abstentions, the United Nations General Assembly adopted resolution 41/38 which "condemns the military attack perpetrated against the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya on 15 April 1986, which constitutes a violation of the Charter of the United Nations and of international law."<ref>[http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/41/a41r038.htm A/RES/41/38]. United Nations.</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | A meeting of the Non-Aligned Movement said that it condemned the "dastardly, blatant and unprovoked act of aggression". The League of Arab States expressed that it was outraged at the United States aggression and that it reinforced an element of anarchy in international relations. The Assembly of Heads of State of the African Union in its declaration said that the deliberate attempt to kill Libyans violated the principles of international law. The Government of Iran asserted that the attack constituted a policy of aggression, gunboat diplomacy, an act of war, and called for an extensive political and economic boycott of the United States. Others saw the United States motive as an attempt to eliminate Libya's revolution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1309/is_v23/ai_4539737/pg_1|title=UN Chronicle, August 1986|publisher=|accessdate=28 October 2014}}</ref>
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| − | China stated that the US attack violated norms of international relations and had aggravated tension in the region. The Soviet Union said that there was a clear link between the attack and US policy aimed at stirring up existing hotbeds of tension and creating new ones, and at destabilising the international situation. West Germany stated that international disputes required diplomatic and not military solutions, and France also criticised the bombing. Italy, Spain, and France all denied the US use of their airspace en route to Libya. This forced the USAF's F-111s, stationed at RAF Lakenheath in Great Britain, to circumnavigate continental Europe and approach Libya via the Straits of Gibraltar.<ref>{{cite web|last=Boyne|first=Walter|title=El Dorado Canyon|url=http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/1999/March%201999/0399canyon.aspx|work=Airforce-Magazine.com|publisher=Air Force Association|accessdate=28 July 2011}}</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | Some observers held the opinion that Article 51 of the UN Charter set limitations on the use of force in exercising the legitimate right of self-defence in the absence of an act of aggression, and affirmed that there was no such act by Libya. It was charged that the United States did not bother to exhaust the Charter provisions for settling disputes under Article 33. Others asserted that Libya was innocent in the bombing of the West Berlin discotheque.<ref>United Nations Yearbook, 1986, Volume 40, Department of Public Information, United Nations, New York</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | The US received support from the [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[Israel]], and 25 other countries. Its doctrine of declaring a war on what it called "terrorist havens" was not repeated until 1998, when President [[Bill Clinton]] ordered strikes on six terrorist camps in [[Afghanistan]]. [[Margaret Thatcher]]'s approval of the use of [[Royal Air Force]] bases led to substantial criticism, including an unprecedented story in ''The Sunday Times'' suggesting the Queen was upset by an "uncaring" Prime Minister. Widespread criticism of the raid caused a temporary rift in UK-US relations and American tourists stayed away from Britain during the spring. Gaddafi himself responded by saying "Thatcher is a murderer...Thatcher is a prostitute. She sold herself to Reagan."<ref>{{cite book | last = Moloney | first = Ed | title = A Secret History of the IRA | publisher = [[Penguin Books]] | year = 2002 | pages = 14–15 | isbn = 0-14-101041-X}}</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | Although the Soviet Union was ostensibly in cooperation with Libya, it had, by the time of the Libya bombing, made its increasing ambivalence toward Libya apparent in public communications. Gaddafi had a history of verbally attacking the policy agendas and ideology of the Soviet Union, and he often engaged in various international interventions and meddling that conflicted with Soviet goals in a variety of spheres. During a period where the Soviet Union was apparently attempting to lead a subtle diplomatic effort that could impact its global status, close association with the whims of Gaddafi became a liability.
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| − | | |
| − | In the entire crisis, the Soviet Union explicitly announced that it would not provide additional help to Libya beyond resupplying basic armaments and munitions. It made no attempt to militarily intimidate the United States, despite the ongoing American operations in the Gulf of Sidra and its previous knowledge that the United States might launch an attack. The Soviet Union did not completely ignore the event, issuing a denunciation of this 'wild' and 'barbaric' act by the United States.
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| − | | |
| − | After the raid, Moscow did cancel a planned visit to the United States by foreign affairs minister [[Eduard Shevardnadze]]. At the same time, it clearly signalled that it did not want this action to affect negotiations about the upcoming summer summit between the United States and the Soviet Union and its plans for new arms control agreements.
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| − | | |
| − | Former US Attorney General [[Ramsey Clark]], acting for Libyan citizens who had been killed or injured in the bombing raid by the US using British air bases, brought suit under international law against the United States and the United Kingdom in US federal court. The lawsuit was dismissed as frivolous. A subsequent appeal was denied, and monetary sanctions against Clark were allowed. Saltany v. Reagan, 886 F. 2d 438 (D.C. Cir. 1989).
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| − | | |
| − | ====UN response====
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| − | Every year, between at least 1994 and 2006, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] scheduled a declaration from the Organisation of African Unity but systematically deferred the discussion year after year until formally putting it aside (along with several other issues which had been similarly rescheduled for years) in 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undemocracy.com/generalassembly_59/meeting_117/pg003-bk14|title=General Assembly Session 59 meeting 117|date=12 September 2005}}</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | ====First anniversary====
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| − | On the first anniversary of the bombing, April 1987, European and North American left-wing activists gathered to commemorate the anniversary. After a day of social and cultural networking with local Libyans, including a tour of Gaddafi's bombed house, the group gathered with other Libyans for a commemoration event.<ref>[http://tvnews.vanderbilt.edu/program.pl?ID=315251 "US-Libya Relations / Bombing Anniversary"] Vanderbilt Television News Archive.</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | ====20th anniversary====
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| − | Early on 15 April 2006 – to mark the 20th anniversary of the bombing raid – a concert involving US singer [[Lionel Richie]] and Spanish tenor [[José Carreras]] was held in front of Gaddafi's bombed house in Tripoli. Diplomats, businessmen and politicians were among the audience of what Libya dubbed the "concert for peace". The BBC reported Lionel Richie as telling the audience, regarding Gaddafi's supposed adopted daughter, "Hanna will be honored tonight because of the fact that you've attached peace to her name."<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4911434.stm Libya concert marks US bomb raids], BBC News.</ref>
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| − | ====2009 comment====
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| − | In June 2009, during a visit to [[Italy]], Colonel Gaddafi criticised American foreign policy and, asked as to the difference between al-Qaeda attacks and the 1986 US bombing of Tripoli, he commented: "If [[al-Qaeda]] leader [[Osama Bin Laden]] has no state and is an outlaw, America is a state with international rules."<ref>{{cite news
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| − | | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/8095982.stm
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| − | | title = Students protest at Gaddafi visit
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| − | | date = 11 June 2009
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| − | | publisher = [[BBC News]]
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| − | | accessdate = 2 January 2010}}</ref>
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| − | ===Settlement of claims===
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| − | On 28 May 2008, the United States began negotiations with Libya on a comprehensive claims settlement agreement to resolve outstanding claims of American and Libyan nationals against each country in their respective courts. Gaddafi's son [[Saif al-Islam Gaddafi]] publicly announced that an agreement was being negotiated in July of that year.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Libya, Italy to sign compensation deal: Gaddafi son|publisher=Reuters|date=24 July 2008|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/07/24/us-libya-italy-compensation-idUSL2457933120080724|accessdate=25 February 2011}}</ref> On 14 August 2008, the resulting US-Libya Comprehensive Claims Settlement Agreement was signed in Tripoli by Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern Affairs David Welch and by Libyan Secretary for American Affairs Ahmad Fituri.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Libya, US Sign Compensation Agreement|publisher=[[The Tripoli Post]]|date=17 August 2008|url=http://tripolipost.com/articledetail.asp?c=1&i=2268 |accessdate=25 February 2011}}</ref>
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| − | In October 2008, Libya paid US$1.5 billion (in three installments of $300 million on 9 October 2008, $600 million on 30 October 2008, and US$600 million 31 October 2008) into a fund<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7703110.stm|title=Libya compensates terror victims|accessdate=25 February 2011|publisher=BBC News|date=31 October 2008}}</ref> used to compensate the following victims and their relatives:
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| − | *[[Pan Am Flight 103|Lockerbie bombing]] victims, who were given an additional US$2 million each after having been paid US$8 million earlier;
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| − | *American victims of the [[1986 Berlin discotheque bombing]];
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| − | *American victims of the 1989 [[UTA Flight 772]] bombing;
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| − | *Libyan victims of the 1986 United States bombing of Libya.
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| − | To pay for the settlement, Libya demanded US$1.5 billion from global oil companies operating in Libya's oil fields, under threat of "serious consequences" to their leases. Libya's settlement was at least partially funded by several companies, including some based in the US, that chose to cooperate with Libya's demand.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/24/world/africa/24qaddafi.html|title=Shady Dealings Helped Qaddafi Build Fortune and Regime|accessdate=29 March 2011|publisher=The New York Times|date=24 March 2011|first1=Eric|last1=Lichtblau|first2=David|last2=Rohde|first3=James|last3=Risen}}</ref>
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| − | On 4 August 2008, President [[George W. Bush]] signed into law the Libyan Claims Resolution Act,<ref>[http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c110:S.3370: Libyan Claims Resolution Act]. The Library of Congress.</ref> which had unanimously passed Congress on 31 July 2008. The Act provided for the restoration of Libya’s sovereign, diplomatic, and official immunities before US courts if the Secretary of State certified that the United States Government has received sufficient funds to resolve outstanding terrorism-related death and physical injury claims against Libya.
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| − | On 14 August 2008, the United States and Libya signed a comprehensive claims settlement agreement.<ref>US Department of State, [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2008/sept/109054.htm Significant Events in U.S.-Libyan Relations]. 2 September 2008</ref> Full diplomatic relations were restored between the two nations.
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| − | == References == | |
| − | {{reflist|30em}} | |
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| − | ==Further reading==
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| − | *{{cite book |last1=Stanik |first1=Joseph T. |title=El Dorado Canyon: Reagan's Undeclared War With Qaddafi |location=Annapolis, Maryland |publisher=Naval Institute Press |year=2003 |isbn=1-55750-983-2 }}
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| − | *{{cite book |last=Venkus |first=Robert E. |title=Raid On Qaddafi |location=New York |publisher=St. Martin's Press |year=1992 |isbn=0-312-07073-X }}
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| − | *{{cite book|last=Riegert|first=Kristina|publisher=Peter Lang|title=Politicotainment: Television's Take on the Real|pages=257–259|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PjxI7hKZY0YC|isbn=9780820481142|year=2007}}
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| − | ==External links==
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| − | *[http://www.life.com/gallery/58111/flashback-1986-bombing-of-libya#index/0 Flashback: 1986 Bombing of Libya] – slideshow by ''Life magazine''
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| − | *[http://www.margaretthatcher.org/speeches/displaydocument.asp?docid=106363 Margaret Thatcher's statement on US bombing of Libya]
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| − | *[http://www.afa.org/magazine/march1999/0399canyon.asp Operation El Dorado Canyon] from Air Force Association magazine
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| − | *[http://ariwatch.com/OurAlly/Libya.htm Excerpt from Victor Ostrovsky's ''The Other Side of Deception''] HarperCollins 1994
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| − | *[http://www.ausairpower.net/Eldorado-Canyon.html The Libyan Strike: How The Americans Did It (Operation El Dorado Canyon)]
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The 1986 United States bombing of Libya, code-named Operation El Dorado Canyon, took place on Tuesday, 15 April 1986. The air strikes were carried out by the US Air Force, US Navy and US Marine Corps in response to the 1986 Berlin discotheque bombing, for which Libya had been framed by the CIA.
One F-111 fighter-bomber was shot down, resulting in the death of two US airmen, but the target of Operation El Dorado Canyon Muammar Gaddafi was not among the many reported Libyan casualties.[1]
Targeting Gaddafi
On 22 February 1987, journalist Seymour Hersh detailed the failure of the US bombing mission in a New York Times magazine article entitled "Target Gaddafi":
Eighteen American warplanes set out from Lakenheath Air Base in England last April 14 to begin a 14-hour, 5,400-mile round-trip flight to Tripoli, Libya. It is now clear that nine of those Air Force F-111's had an unprecedented peacetime mission. Their targets: Col. Muammar al-Gaddafi and his family.
The mission, authorised by the White House, was to be the culmination of a five-year clandestine effort by the Reagan Administration to eliminate Gaddafi, who had been described a few days earlier by the President as the "mad dog of the Middle East."
Since early 1981, the Central Intelligence Agency had been encouraging and abetting Libyan exile groups and foreign governments, especially those of Egypt and France, in their efforts to stage a coup d'etat - and kill, if necessary - the bizarre Libyan strongman. But Gaddafi, with his repeated threats to President Reagan and support of international terrorism, survived every confrontation and in the spring of 1986 continued to be solidly in control of Libya's 3 million citizens. Now the supersonic Air Force F-111's were ordered to accomplish what the CIA could not.
That the assassination of Gaddafi was the primary goal of the Libyan bombing is a conclusion reached after three months of interviews with more than 70 current and former officials in the White House, the State Department, the Central Intelligence Agency, the National Security Agency and the Pentagon. These sources, a number of whom were closely involved in the planning of the Tripoli raid, agreed to talk only if their names were not used. Many of them, however, corroborated key information. The interviews depict a White House decision-making process that by early last year was relying on internal manipulation and deceit to shield true policy from the professionals in the State Department and the Pentagon.
The interviews also led to these findings:
- The attempt last April on Gaddafi's life was plotted by a small group of military and civilian officials in the National Security Council. These officials, aware of the political risks, operated with enormous care. A back channel was set up to limit information to a few inside the Government; similar steps had been taken the year before to shield the equally sensitive secret talks and arms dealings with Iran.
- Much of the secret planning for the Iran and Libyan operations took place simultaneously, so that the Administration was pursuing the elimination of one Middle East source of terrorism while it was trading arms with another. The two missions involved the same people, including John M. Poindexter, then the national security adviser, and Oliver L. North, the NSC's deputy director for political-military affairs.
- There was widespread concern and anger inside the National Security Council over the Administration's handling of the Libyan messages intercepted immediately after the April 5 terrorist bombing of a West Berlin discotheque. The White House's reliance on these messages as irrefutable evidence that Libya was behind that bombing was immediately challenged by some allies, most notably West Germany. Some NSC experts now express similar doubts because the normal intelligence channels for translating and interpreting such messages were purposely bypassed. As of this month, the NSC's North African specialists had still not been shown these intercepts.
- William J. Casey, then Director of Central Intelligence, personally served as the intelligence officer for a secret task force on Libya set up in mid-1981, and he provided intelligence that could not be confirmed by his subordinates. Some task force members suspected that much of Casey's information, linking Gaddafi to alleged hit teams that were said to be targeting President Reagan and other senior White House aides, was fabricated by him.
President Reagan's direct involvement in the intrigue against Gaddafi - as in the Iran-Contra crisis - is difficult to assess. The President is known to have relied heavily on Casey's intelligence and was a strong supporter of covert action against Gaddafi. But Mr Reagan initially resisted when the National Security Council staff began urging the bombing of Libya in early 1986. Some former NSC staff members acknowledge that they and their colleagues used stratagems to win the President over to their planning.[2]
US-Libya compensation agreement
On 31 October 2008, CNN reported:
"Libya has paid $1.5 billion to the families of terrorism victims, overcoming the final obstacle to full relations with the United States, the State Department said Friday.
"The payment ends Tripoli's legal liability in US terror cases and paves the way for increased US involvement in the oil-rich nation.
"President Bush signed an executive order Friday restoring Libyan immunity from terrorism-related lawsuits and dismissing pending cases over compensation as part of a deal reached this summer.
"David Welch, the top US diplomat for the Middle East, who negotiated the agreement, called Libya's rehabilitation from a terrorist nation to a US ally 'historic'.
"The pact closes the book on a contentious period in US-Libyan relations, which began in the 1980s with a series of attacks involving the two countries, including the bombings of Pan Am Flight 103, a German disco and US airstrikes over Libya.
"US business executives hope the new relationship will lead to billions of dollars of new investment in Libya, a country rich in petroleum reserves but lacking a developed infrastructure.
"This summer, the United States and Libya signed a deal for the State Department to create a $1.8 billion compensation fund to finalise the claims for the 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, and the 1986 bombing of La Belle disco in Berlin, Germany. It also compensates Libyan victims of US airstrikes in the 1980s.
"Congress unanimously adopted the Libyan Claims Resolution Act, sponsored by Senator Frank R. Lautenberg, D-New Jersey, which cleared the way to end the feud and created the victim compensation fund.
"Under the agreement, Libya pays more than $500 million to settle remaining claims from the Lockerbie case and more than $280 million for victims of the disco bombing. It will also set aside funds to compensate victims of several other incidents blamed on Libya, although Libya has not accepted responsibility.
"In exchange, Libya will now be exempt from legislation passed this year enabling terrorism victims to be compensated using frozen assets of governments blamed for attacks. Tripoli sought the protection to encourage US companies to invest in Libya without fear of being sued by terrorism victims or their families."[3]
Destroying Libya
In his 2013 book Destroying Libya and World Order: The Three-Decade US Campaign to Reverse the Qaddafi Revolution, Professor Francis Boyle described how the 1986 United States bombing of Libya was part of a long-term strategy to resubjugate Libya.
It took three decades for the United States government — spanning and working assiduously over five different presidential administrations (Reagan, Bush I, Clinton, Bush II, and Obama) — to overthrow and reverse the 1969 Gaddafi Revolution in order to resubjugate Libya, seize control over its oil fields, and dismantle its Jamahiriya system.
This book tells the story of what happened, why it happened, and what was both wrong and illegal with what happened from the perspective of an international law professor and lawyer who tried for over three decades to stop it. Francis Boyle, who served as Gaddafi's lawyer at the World Court, provides a comprehensive history and critique of American foreign policy toward Libya from when the Reagan administration came to power in January of 1981 up to the NATO war on Libya that ultimately achieved the US goal of regime change.
He deals with the repeated series of military conflicts and crises between the United States and Libya over the Gulf of Sidra and the fraudulent US claims of Libyan instigation of international terrorism during the eight years of the neoconservative Reagan administration. He reveals the flimsy factual basis and legal machinations behind the Lockerbie bombing allegations against Libya initiated by the Bush administrations I and II.
In 2011, under the guise of the UN R2P "responsibility to protect” doctrine newly-contrived to provide legal cover for Western intervention into third world countries, and override the UN Charter commitment to prevention of aggression and state sovereignty, the NATO assault led to 50,000 Libyan casualties and the complete breakdown of law and order. Boyle analyses and debunks the doctrines of R2P and its immediate predecessor, "humanitarian intervention", in accordance with the standard recognised criteria of international law. This book provides an excellent case study of the conduct of US foreign policy as it relations to international law.[4]
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